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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



PRINCIPLES 
OF FOOD PREPARATION 



PRINCIPLES 

OF 

FOOD PREPARATION 

A MANUAL FOR STUDENTS OF 
HOME ECONOMICS 



BY 
MARY D. CHAMBERS, B.S., A.M. 

Formerly Instructor of Normal Classes in Domestic Science, Pratt 

Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y.; Professor of Domestic Economy and 

Head of the Department, The James Millikin University, 

Decatur, Illinois ; Professor of Chemistry and Home 

Economics, and Head of the Departments, 

Rockford College, Rockford, Illinois 



ILLUSTRATED 




BOSTON 
THE BOSTON COOKING-SCHOOL MAGAZINE CO. 

1914 



<v 






Copyright, 1914 
Bv The Boston Cooking School Magazine Company 



THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAilBRIDGE, U. S. A. 

wilP2i iSi4 

©C1.A380452 



JL the beloved students in various schools 
and colleges, who have endured the hardness 
of recitation, laboratory, and quiz with me, and 
who by their enthusiasm and interest have made 
our class periods hours of joy to the instructor, 
this book is lovingly dedicated 



INTRODUCTION 

THE following lessons have grown out of an experience 
of many years in teaching both high school and college 
classes. In the practical study of each food I have tried 
to give a sufficient variety of dishes to afford novelty and 
give scope for individual choice, as well as to make the 
work adaptable to students of varying degrees of ability 
or preparation. I have thrown as much as possible on 
the students themselves the responsibihty of organizing 
the work in class, after the selection of recipes, experi- 
ments, etc., has been made by the teacher.^ 

The Exercises, involving original application of 
knowledge, usually form a lesson by themselves, where 
the students work quite independently. 

Simple chemical tests and rough analyses of foods are 
included in most of the chapters, suice in many of the 
smaller high schools and colleges this work is in charge 
of the teacher of Household Science. 

The Topics for Study or Discussion — which include 
correlation with tributary subjects — and the Questions, 
are of course merely suggestive. 

In the preparation of this book my thanks are due to 
Dr. Jessie Y. Cann, now of the Department of Chemistry 
in the University of Ilhnois, and to my former colleagues 
in the science departments of Rockford College, who have 

I In no case is it supposed that all of the dishes given to illustrate the principles 
will be made during the class periods. A selection, including a sufficient variety 
for purposes of illustration, should be made by the teacher. 



X PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

patiently answfered my questions, and have given me 
references regarding newer theories and facts bearing on 
the chemical and physiological aspects of food. I am 
also indebted to my beloved former associate in the de- 
partment of Home Economics, Miss Mildred Wood, who 
has conducted the laboratory experiments for me. 

I am further indebted to the Youth's Companion for 
allowing me to use in modified form such parts of this 
text as first appeared in the Companion under the titles: 
*' Batters and Doughs," ''The Transformations of a White 
Sauce," and "The Evolution of an Oyster Stew." The 
Boston Cooking-School Magazine has done me the great 
favor of placing at my disposal many of the illustrations 
from its pages which now reappear in my text. 



FOREWORD TO THE STUDENT OF 
HOME ECONOMICS 

IN some schools the term Home Economics is applied 
to such studies as are designed to fit women to cope 
efficiently with the problems of the home. Inasmuch as 
the object of these courses is, or should be, to develop in 
the student a sense of values, the title Home Economics 
is one of the fittest that could be given. For to-day, more 
perhaps than at any other age of the world, it seems neces- 
sary for women to realize that the great, permanent values 
of life have always been controlled by them, have always 
been in their hands — can hardly be wrested from them 
unless they are wilHng to let them go. 

The first of these great values is that factor so potent 
for either evil or good, money. Woman is the great money- 
spender of the world. Not only the weekly wage of the 
artisan, the income or earnings of the man in business or 
professional life, but even the wealth of the millionaire 
is either disposed of or appreciably controlled by the 
women of the families. It is not too much to say that of 
the aggregate earnings of men, the larger part is spent by 
women. Home Economics will help a woman to be a 
wise money-spender. 

The second great value in the hands of woman is the 
provision of food. Ever since Eve gave Adam the apple, 
woman has been giving food to man, to his help or to his 
hurt. In the privacy of the family woman chooses and 
provides the materials for nutrition; in the greater num- 



Xll PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

ber of public institutions the selection of the food is also 
in the hands of women. And stretching farther out, the 
woman in social service who has some knowledge of the 
science of dietetics, of the economics of nutrition, of sani- 
tation and hygiene, is the woman who will hold and keep 
this great woman-function, that of the nourisher of the 
race. Home Economics will fit a woman to be a wise food- 
provider. 

The third big thing in the hands of woman is the mak- 
ing of the home. This great social institution, on which 
all the others depend, is the creation of woman, and under 
present social conditions the organization of the house- 
hold and the creation of that subtle atmosphere which 
makes the home the most important institution in the 
nation demand, for the best efficiency in this work, a 
fine and thorough training. Home Economics will help 
to fit a woman to be a home-maker. 

The greatest of all the values in the hands of woman is 
the bearing, nurture, and training of the child. So essen- 
tial, indeed, seems this function of motherhood to the 
nature of woman that few are found who do not in some 
fashion exercise it, either by the bearing, the nurture, the 
teaching, or the love of a child. Home Economics will 
help to fit a woman better to care for a child. 

It is, then, to keep alive among the young women of 
to-day the old-fashioned ideals that have been proved 
true throughout the ages — while by no means excluding 
new ideals and opportunities — that this subject has 
now a place in the schools, either as a requirement or an 
elective. 

This Manual deals chiefly with the second of the great 
values controlled by women, in that it treats of the modi- 



FOREWORD TO THE STUDENT OF HOME ECONOMICS xili 

fication of food — physically, chemically, and physiologic- 
ally — by the processes of combination, cooking, and serv- 
ing. Every one of the other values, however, is included 
to some extent in this subject. For one of the chief ex- 
penditures of money is for food; one of the chief features 
of the home is the social meal ; one of the most important 
elements in the care of the child is its nutrition. It is 
perhaps hardly going too far to say that the right choice 
of food is basal to all physical, moral, and spiritual growth 
and usefulness. 



CONTENTS 



PAOB 



CHAPTER . 

I. Effect op Heat on Food ^ 

Sterilization of food — Development of flavor — Loss or 
gain in weight — Softening or hardening of tissue — Im- 
provement in appearance — Development of odor, etc. 

II. Effect of Salt on Cellulose. Study of Potato, a 

Typical Starchy Vegetable. Study of Rice . . 7 
Conditions under which cellulose is toughened or changed 
in color by common salt — Analysis of potato — condi- 
tions under which potato loses salts during cooking proc- 
esses — Effect of potassium salts on casein — Effect of 
moist and of dry heat on starch — Relative conductivity 
of dry and moist heat — Foods needing savory accom- 
paniments. 

III. Study of Green Vegetables in Cooking 15 

Effect on the solvent properties of water of common salt 

and of baking soda in moderately strong solution — 
Classification of vegetables for cooking according to 
result desired — Methods for lessening or enhancing the 
flavor of vegetables. 

IV. Effect of Sugar on Cellulose. The Preservation 

OF THE Color of Fruits and Vegetables. The 
Jellying Principle in Fruits and Vegetables . 24 

Effect of sugar on cellulose — Antiseptic agents in cook- 
ing processes — Effect on color of fruits and vegetables of 
cooking while closely covered — Occurrence of jellying 
principle in fruits and vegetables — Effect of heat on this 
principle — Effect of the addition of sugar during cook- 
ing — Effect of prolonged cooking on this principle. 



Eggs 

Specific gravity of stale vs. fresh eggs — Weight and vol- 
ume of eggs, of the yolk and white of eggs — Effect, on 



30 



XVI CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

yolk and white of egg, of water, of heat, of acid, of high and 
low temperature. Relative solubility of yolk and white 
of egg when cooked hard — Effect of manipulation on 
yolk and white of egg — Effect of initial high tempera- 
ture vs. gradually increasing heat — Difference in compo- 
sition of yolk and white of egg. 

VI. Gelatine 42 

Effect on gelatine of water, of heat, of acid, of prolonged 
cooking — Sources of gelatine — Study of different brands 
of commercial gelatine — Effect of manipulation on gela- 
tine — Comparison of gelatine and albumin — Action of 
pineapple juice on gelatine and on albumin — Effect of 
heat on the active principle in pineapple juice. 

VII. Fish 53 

Comparison of various methods of cooking, involving 
the use of water, heat, and acid, on fish — Classification 
of fish according to composition — Conditions under 
which nutrients are lost during the cooking of fish — 
Conditions under which flavor is developed during the 
cooking of fish. 

VIII. Oysters 62 

Study of the effect of water, heat, and acid on oysters — 
The principle of osmosis, and its application in the culti- 
vation of oysters — The effect of oyster liquor on milk 
— The effect of heat on the active principle in oyster 
liquor. 

IX. Meats 70 

Study of steak in cooking — Physical and chemical 
methods of softening connective tissue — Physical struc- 
ture of meat — Analysis of the constituents of meat — 
The soluble and insoluble proteids of meat — The sapid 
extractives of meat — The effect of heat on these ex- 
tractives. 

X. Meats, continued 79 

Study of larger joints of meat in cooking — Losses of nu- 
trients, etc., by various methods of cooking meat — 
Application of fat to meat — Causes of retention of color 
in meat. 



CONTENTS XVll 

:hapter paqe 

XL Meats, continued 89 

Cooking of meat by means of water — Methods involving 
loss or retention of the juices of meat — The globulin of 
meat, and the conditions which may result in a loss of 
the same. 

XII. Milk 101 

Reaction of milk to heat and acid — Constituents of milk 

— Action of rennin on milk — Conditions which modify 
or inhibit this action — Review of effect of alkaline salts 
on casein. 

XIII. Fats IL") 

Emulsification of fat — Effect of heat on fat — Effect of 
acid on fat — Solvents for fat — Conditions involving 
the decomposition of fat — Temperature for the use of 
fat as a medium for cooking. 

XIV. Cereals and Other Starchy Foods 130 

Study of the double boiler in cooking — Effect of water, 
heat, and acid on starchy foods — Effect of malt diastase 

on starchy foods — Methods of cooking which induce 
chemical change in starchy foods. 

XV. Flour Mixtures and Leavens: Batters 140 

Proportions for thin and thick batters — Essentials and 
non-essentials in flour mixtures — Type forms of batters 
and their derivatives — Air, steam, and carbon dioxide as 
leavens — Complemental action of eggs and butter in a 
flour mixture — Comparison of bread and pastry flour. 

XVI. Flour Mixtures AND Leavens, confmwec?; Doughs. . 154 

Proportions for soft and stiff doughs — Further examples 
of air, steam, and carbon dioxide as leavens — Types of 
doughs and their derivatives — Study of baking powders. 

XVII. Quick-Process Bread 169 

Study of two methods of bread making, sponge vs. 
" straight dough " — Derivatives of quick-process bread 

— Study of the action of yeast — Of conditions which 
favor or inhibit its growth — Comparison of the action 
of compressed vs. dried yeast — Bread score cards. 



XVlll CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XVIII. Sugar 183 

Effect of dry heat on sugar — Effect of water and heat — 
Effect of water, heat, and acid — Comparison of cane 
sugar and glucose — Cooking processes which bring about 
inversion of sugar. 

XIX. Beverages 191 

Study of various methods of making coffee, tea, cocoa, and 
chocolate — Presence of tannin in vegetable substances 
— Effect of tannin on proteids. on the digestive secre- 
tions. 

XX. Cakes, Pies, and Puddings 201 

Proportions and general rules for making cakes, pies, and 
puddings. 



APPENDICES 

A. Charts of the Composition of Foods 217 

B. Time Tables for Cooking 235 

C. Principles of the Preparation of Food Illustrated in 

THE Preceding Chapters 240 

Index 243 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

A Class Dinner Frontispiece 

PAGE 

Dainty Service of Baked Potato 3 

Spinach in Croustade 17 

Bread Croustades, Croutons, etc 18 

Eat Onions in May, and all the Year after Physicians may 

Play 23 

Apple Compote Garnished with Whipped Cream 25 

Foamy Omelet 34 

Foamy Omelet Garnished with Peas 35 

Poached Eggs with Creamed Celery on Toast 39 

Poached Egg above Creamed Onions in Croustade .... 40 
Macedoine of Vegetables in Tomato Jelly, with Celery, 

Lettuce and Mayonnaise 45 

Tomato Jelly in Ring Mold Garnished with Celery and 

Lettuce 51 

Black Bass 53 

Fish Trussed in Shape of Letter S 59 

Pickerel 61 

Oyster Soup Ready to Serve 64 

Supreme of Oysters in Ramekins 67 

Standing Rib Roast — as Purchased 80 

Standing Rib Roast, Cooked and Ready to Serve .... 81 

Green Peppers, Farci 86 

Leg of Lamb, English or Loin Chops, Rib or French Chops 91 

Analysis of 1 lb. of Milk 101 

Salad of Cottage Cheese, Lettuce, and Tomato 113 

Bowl of Green Salad 116 

Analysis of 1 lb. of Flour 140 

Popovers 145 

How to Measure Dry Materials 153 

Boston Brown Bread 164 



XX ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Milk Bread, French Bread, and Rye-Meal Biscuit .... 168 

Quick-Process Bread 172,173 

Raisin Bread 175 

Whole-Wheat Bread 181 

ACupofTea 194 

Diagram of Cake Making 202 

Cake Covered with Confectioner's Frosting, ready to 

Ornament 212 

Cake Decorated with Ornamental Frosting 213 



PRINCIPLES OF FOOD 
PREPARATION 

CHAPTER I 
THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON FOOD 

To the Student. In the following Lessons the dishes to 
be cooked, as well as the more formal experiments to be 
made from time to time, have all been chosen to illustrate 
some principle essential to the correct preparation of 
food. The discovery of this principle is the most impor- 
tant thing in the whole lesson! All the rest is subordinate 
or tributary to this — for the Questions are planned to 
test your grasp of the principles the lesson was designed 
to teach, your ability to make from it a correct generaliza- 
tion, and your power to express clearly what you have 
learned; while the Exercises, wherever these are assigned, 
call upon you to show, not only that you have gained 
knowledge but that you can use it — since each exercise 
is a demand for the original application of a principle 
already learned. 

Where several dishes are given in one lesson you may 
select from them those that you prefer to make — sub- 
ject, of course, to the approval of your teacher. Ability 
to choose wisely is an excellent gift, and one that may be 
cultivated. For instance, in Lesson I you would naturally 
choose some one of the three animal foods, together with 
one vegetable and one fruit. In this lesson it would be a 

1 



2 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

good thing if you should form, with two other students, a 
group of three who might distribute the nine dishes 
among them and compare the results of one another's 
work, thus being able to make a more comprehensive 
inference — not to mention having a greater variety of 
dishes to enjoy in the miniature meal. 

Remember that the cooking of each dish in perfection 
is always necessary in order to make the correct inference, 
which is the object of the lesson. 

Meat Balls 

Take an ounce and a half of finely chopped lean meat, 
season it lightly with salt and pepper, and form it into 
three meat balls of equal size. Allow one of these to re- 
main uncooked, for the sake of comparison, or for what 
is known as a control test. Cook another by steaming 
it for ten minutes. Pan-boil the third — roUing it on a 
very hot pan until it is well browned on the outside. 
The pan should be so hot that the meat will not stick 
to it. 

Compare the three meat balls: (1) as to size, weight, 
appearance, and consistency; (2) as to flavor. 

Oysters, Steamed and Broiled 

Select three oysters of about equal size, and weigh 
them in bulk. Allow one to remain uncooked, steam 
another until the gills separate and crinkle, broil the 
third over a clear fire or under a gas flame. Use a fine 
wire broiler, which should be lightly greased. 

Compare the three oysters: (1) as to size, weight, and 
consistency; (2) as to flavor. 



EFFECT OF HEAT ON FOOD 3 

Eggs, Soft-cooked and Baked 

Weigh three eggs. Cook one by placing it in a sauce- 
pan, pouring over it boiling water to cover, and then 
allowing it to stand near the heat, but not close enough 
to boil, for ten minutes. In the large end of the third egg 
prick several holes with a pin, being careful merely to 
penetrate the shell, then bake in a hot oven for 10 m. 

Compare the three eggs: (1) as to weight and con- 
sistency; (2) as to flavor. 




DAINTY SERVICE OF BAKED POTATO 

Potatoes, Boiled and Baked 

Scrub two potatoes with a small brush, and weigh them. 
Cook one by steaming or boiling for 30 m., cook the other 
by baking on the grate of a hot oven for 45 m. 

Ascertain whether each one has lost or gained in weight 
as a result of cooking. Compare the flavor of the baked 
and the boiled potato. Compare both the flavor and the 
consistency of cooked and uncooked potatoes. 

Beets, Baked and Steamed 

Wash the beets, and trim off the ends to within about 
an inch of the roots, but avoid cutting or bruising the 



4 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

skin, lest the color or sweetness of the vegetable be lost. 
Cook one of the beets in boiling water for from one-half 
to one hour for a young beet, for a much longer time 
if old. Bake the other on the grate of a hot oven for one 
hour, or until tender. 

Compare the raw, steamed, and baked beets as to 
weight, color, and consistency. 

After removing the skin the cooked beets should be 
sliced, quartered, and served hot with butter. 

Tomatoes, Baked and Steamed 

Wash two tomatoes, and weigh before cooking. Place 
one on a small dish in the steamer, and cook for 20-30 m. 
Place the other in a small agate pan, and bake in a hot 
oven for 10-15 m. 

Compare raw, baked, and steamed tomatoes as to 
weight, color, flavor, and consistency. 

Apples, Baked and Steamed 

Wipe the apples, and core from the blossom end. Weigh 
before cooking. Steam and bake the same as tomatoes, 
allowing perhaps 5-10 m. longer for each cooking process. 

Ascertain the loss or gain in weight after cooking. 
Compare the flavor and consistency of raw, baked, and 
steamed apples. 

Peaches, Baked and Steamed 

Weigh the peaches before cooking, and steam and bake 
the same as tomatoes, allowing 5-10 m. less for each 
process. 

Compare raw, baked, and steamed peaches as to 
weight, flavor, and consistency, 



EFFECT OF HEAT ON FOOD 5 

, Bananas, Baked and Steamed 

Remove the skin from bananas and weigh them. Steam 
and bake the same as tomatoes, allowing 20 m. for the 
first process, 15 m. for the second. 

Compare raw, baked, and steamed bananas as to weight, 
flavor, and consistency. 

Note. The cooked fruit may be served with sugar and cream. 
A little lemon juice added to the bananas will be an improvement. 

Experiment to Aid or Corroborate Inference 

In order fully to prove or demonstrate one of the very 
important effects of heat on food, three petri dishes of 
sterilized nutrient jelly, such as is used in bacteriological 
studies, may be used if convenient. The jelly in one 
dish should be touched with the exposed surface of at 
least three of the uncooked foods — preferably one from 
each class ^animal foods, fruits, vegetables. The jelly in 
a second dish should be touched with the freshly cut 
surface of each of the foods previously used. To the 
jelly in the third dish a bit of the same foods, freshly 
cooked, should be applied. 

The dishes must be covered immediately, labeled, and 
allowed to stand for a few days before they are examined. 

TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1. The approximate temperature of the cooking proc- 
esses used in this lesson. 

2. Other methods of applying heat to food, their ad- 
vantages, etc. 

3. Fuels used in cooking, their comparative cost, 
cleanliness, and ease of regulation or control. 

4. Definition of Food. 

5. Classification of foods into Protein, Fats, Carbo- 



6 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

hydrates. Water, Minerals. Function, broadly speak- 
ing, of each in the diet. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the general effects of heat on food which 
are common in the case of both animal and vegetable 
foods. 

2. What are the effects of heat which are opposite in 
the two cases? 

3. How does the effect of dry heat differ from that of 
moist? 

4. How does the effect of high temperature differ 
from that of low? 

5. Why do potatoes take longer to bake than to boil, 
though the temperature of the oven is higher than that 
of boiling water? 

6. How is it that you can hold your hand in a hot oven 
for a few seconds, without being burned, and you can- 
not hold it in boiling water? 

7. In the case of the meat balls, what physical changes 
were brought about by pan-broiling that were not pro- 
duced by steaming? 

8. Name the protein foods in today's lesson, the car- 
bohydrates. What fats were present? 

9. Discuss how a meal, planned on the basis of three 
of the foods used in class today, could be cooked with 
the greatest economy of time and labor, consistent 
with the development of the most delicious flavor. 
What would be the cost of such a meal for four persons? 
(See charts. Appendix A.) 

References 

Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. II. 
Jordan. The- Principles of Human Nutrition, Chap. XVI. 
Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chap. XXH. 
Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. H. 
White. The Fuels of the Household. 
Encyclopaedia articles on fuels, etc. 



CHAPTER II 

EFFECT OF SALT ON CELLULOSE 

STUDY OF POTATO, A TYPICAL STARCHY VEGETABLE 

To the Student. The work in this and in most of the 
succeeding chapters will probably occupy at least two 
lesson periods. The Corroborative Experiment outlined 
at the close of the practical work in cooking pota- 
toes will throw light on much that you will observe in 
making the various dishes. These experiments can be 
omitted where the results are evident from the work 
done, but when not actually performed they may be 
profitably read over or studied. 

In this chapter the Exercises are introduced for the 
first time. These are not intended for the beginner in the 
formal study of cookery, but will be assigned by your 
instructor according as your proficiency warrants. They 
are designed to develop initiative and originality, or to 
give additional practice, or to afford opportunity to make 
further application of the principles learned from the 
work of each chapter. 

EFFECT OF SALT ON CELLULOSE 

Sweet Com, Boiled 

Divide an ear of corn into two parts. Cook one part 
in strongly salted boiling water for 20 m., cook the second 

7 



8 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

part in soft, unsalted water for 20 m. If very soft water 
is not at hand the second part may be steamed. 

Compare the color and consistency of the two portions. 

Potatoes 

Scrub and pare a potato, and divide it into two parts. 
Cook one part in strongly salted boiling water for 30 m. ; 
cook the other part in soft, unsalted water for 30 m. 

Compare the color and consistency of the two portions. 
Is the effect of the salt as marked as in the case of the 
corn? Why? Is the cellulose of the potato as tough as 
that of the corn? 

STUDY OF POTATO, A TYPICAL STARCHY VEGETABLE 
Mashed Potatoes 

Take two potatoes; pare one before cooking, cook the 
other in its jacket. Boil both for 30 m. Mash each one 
separately, using a fork to bruise the potato until it is 
free from lumps, then adding the right proportion of sea- 
soning. This can be estimated from Ingredients for One 
Pint of Mashed Potatoes (see below). The mixture 
should then be beaten with a fork or a Dover beater until 
it is light and white. 

Compare the behavior of the two potatoes during the 
making of this dish. Do you notice any difference in 
color, flavor, or consistency? 

Note. In preparing mashed potatoes all the utensils used should 
be hot, the milk or cream added should also be hot, and the work should 
be performed as expeditiously as possible, since the flavor depends on 
the retention of the heat — the dish, if reheated, loses its delicacy. 

Ingredients for One Pint of Mashed Potatoes. 

3 or 4 medium-sized potatoes. }/s teaspoonful pepper. 

2 tablespoonfuls butter. Milk or cream sufficient to 

}4 teaspoonful salt. moisten, generally 1 cupful. 



STUDY OF POTATO 9 

Potatoes with Cheese 

This and the next dish are better illustrations of the 
principle involved when they are made in the full quan- 
tity given in the recipe. One or two students may be 
allowed to make the dishes for the whole class, but every 
student should have opportunity to compare the two. 

Ingredients. Four medium-sized potatoes, freshly 
boiled, and pared before boiling. Two cups of grated 
cheese, two cups of medium white sauce (see recipe). 

Method. Break the potatoes with a fork into good- 
sized pieces, and arrange these in a layer to cover the bot- 
tom of a baking-dish. Add a layer of grated cheese, then 
cover with white sauce, and proceed in this way until all 
the ingredients have been used. Cover with buttered 
crumbs (see recipe), and bake until brown on top. 



Medium White Sauce 



Ingredients. 



4 tablespoonfuls butter. 3^ teaspoonful pepper. 

4 tablespoonfuls flour. 2 cups milk. 

3^ teaspoonful salt. 

Method. Put flour, salt, pepper, and butter into a 
saucepan, and melt the butter over gentle heat until it is 
soft enough to blend with the flour. The butter should 
not be heated more than enough to soften it. (See Chap- 
ter XIII, page 122.) Add the milk, which may or may 
not have been previously scalded, about one-third at a 
time, and let the whole boil for about a minute. 

Buttered Crumbs 

Dry out pieces of stale bread in a very slow oven until 
they are crisp and brittle. Crush them with a rolling pin 



10 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

on a molding board, and sift through a flour sifter. Meas- 
ure the amount needed, and mix with one-fourth the vol- 
ume of melted butter. A half-cupful of crumbs should be 
enough for one baking-dish of potatoes and cheese. 

Note. Dry, sifted crumbs will keep indefinitely in a glass jar. This 
is a good way to utilize pieces of stale bread. 

Baked Potatoes with Cheese 

Proceed as for Potatoes with Cheese, but use freshly 
baked potatoes instead of boiled. 

Compare the two dishes, noting especially: (1) the 
consistency of the cheese; (2) the flavor of the dish as a 
whole. 

Baked Potatoes, Pared and Unpared 

Choose two potatoes of similar size. Pare one, leave 
the other unpared, and bake both on the grate of a hot 
oven until soft. 

Compare the two. Which potato was cooked the first? 

Experiments designed to Aid or Corroborate Inferences 

I 
Analysis of Potato 

1. Cut a thin cross-section from a raw potato, and hold 
it to the light to observe its structure. Make a diagram of 
what you see. 

2. Pare the remainder of the potato, and grate it 
through cheesecloth into a bowl or beaker. Squeeze out 
the liquid, and examine the residue in the cloth. 

3. Decant or filter the liquid. Examine the precipi- 
tate. Test this with iodine. Add to the precipitate four 
or five times its volume of water and boil the mixture. 



STUDY OF RICE IN COOKING 11 

What was the precipitate? What are its characteristic 
properties? 

4. Filter the hquid from 3 through finely pulverized 
bone black. (Why?) Add to the clear filtrate one drop 
of a solution of platinic chloride. In the presence of 
potassium salts a yellow precipitate will be formed. 

5. Apply a piece of red htmus paper to the residue from 
2, to the liquid from 4. 

6. Wash the residue from 2 as thoroughly as possible 
by allowing water to run through it on the cheesecloth. 
What is this substance? Try it on the effect of water, 
heat, and acid. What are its characteristic properties? 

II 

The Effect of Potassium Salts on Cheese 

1. Melt a small portion of grated cheese, and divide it 
into two parts, A and B. Add to A a pinch of potassium 
chloride. Let it stand for a little while, and compare it 
with B. Relate your inference to the difference observed 
in the cheese dishes made today. 

STUDY OF RICE IN COOKING 
Boiled Rice 

Wash the rice until when it is rubbed between the hands 
in clear water no further cloudiness appears. Cook it 
in abundance of violently boiling water — six quarts to 
one cup of rice will not be too much. Sprinkle in the rice 
a little at a time, and cook it for 15-20 m., or longer, 
according to the age of the rice. Old rice takes a longer 
time to soften. The boiling should be so violent as to keep 
the rice agitated and the grains well separated from one 
another. 



12 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

Test it by pressing a grain between thumb and finger, 
and when it is found to be soft all through drain the rice 
through a colander, and set it in a hot oven for a moment 
to dry it a little. While in the oven the rice may be 
lightly lifted or tossed with a fork, to let the steam escape. 

Rice cooked in this way may be served as a vegetable, 
or with cream and cooked fruit as a breakfast cereal. 

Steamed Rice 

Wash the rice as before, and stir it into boiling salted 
water, one cup of rice to one quart of water. Let it boil 
for 5 m., stirring gently with a fork to keep the rice 
lifted from the bottom, then cover and cook in a double 
boiler until the rice is soft. 

Compare the boiled and the steamed rice. 

Baked Rice 

A thin layer of rice should be spread on a pie plate or 
a shallow pan, and baked in a moderate oven until it is 
lightly and evenly browned. The rice kernels should be 
shaken or stirred so that the grains may be a uniform 
color. The rice is then cooked as in Steamed Rice, but 
only half the amount of water, or a pint of water to one 
cup of rice, need be used. 

Compare the steamed rice with the rice cooked accord- 
ing to this method. 

Fig Marmalade to Serve with Rice 

Press steamed figs through a colander, moisten slightly 
with water, and add sugar or lemon juice if desired. 



TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 13 

TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1. Tubers, their nature and structure. Tubers other 
than potatoes which are used as food. 

2. Loss of salts and other substances in cooking potatoes. 

3. Theories regarding the structure of starch. Diagrams 
of the starch granules of rice and potato. 

4. Protein sparers. 

5. Cellulose, its function in the body. 

6. The solanaceae and solanin. 

7. The growth and manufacture of rice; unpolished 
rice. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name and describe the different substances isolated 
in your analysis of potato. 

2. Compare the cross-section of the potato to the cross- 
section of a branch. 

3. Under what conditions might it be better to cook 
potatoes in their jackets? Why? When might it be better 
to pare potatoes before cooking? Why? 

4. Account for the fact that the pared potato took 
longer to bake than the unpared. 

5. Could the water in which potatoes have been boiled 
be used for stock? For any household purpose? Explain. 

6. If two average-sized potatoes, boiled after paring, 
lose, as is estimated, 17 per cent of their mineral matter, 
how many grams (of minerals) will remain? Potatoes 
contain about 1 per cent of salts. 

7. Trace the connection between the experiments and 
the practical work in cooking potatoes. 

8. Why must rice be thoroughly washed if the grains 
are to be kept distinct in cooking? 

9. Why was less water needed in the process of steam- 
ing the baked rice? 

10. Can you frame two general rules for the cooking of 
starchy vegetables? 

11. What foods should be combined with these vege- 
tables to make an appetizing and well-balanced meal? 



14 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

12. Formulate the principles of food preparation gained 
from the work of this chapter. 

EXERCISES 

1. Make a dish to show what should be combined with 
potatoes to supply their deficiencies. 

2. Select at least two vegetables other than those used 
in class, and devise some method of cooking them in an 
acceptable and appetizing form, which yet shall illustrate 
the effect of salt on cellulose. 

3. Show how the water in which rice was boiled may be 
made use of for any household purpose with economy and 
profit. Do the same with the water used in boiling pota- 
toes; (a) in their jackets; (6) after paring. 

References 

Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XI. 
Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chaps. XII, XIII, and XXII. 
Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chap. XVI. 
Lassar-Cohn. Chemistry in Daily Life, Lect. IV, last paragraph. 
Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, see Index. 
Thompson. Practical Dietetics, see Index, and Plates Vand VI, oppo- 
site pp. 155 and 158. 

Wiley. Foods and Food Adulterants, Parts V and VI. 



CHAPTER III 

STUDY OF GREEN VEGETABLES IN COOKING 

To the Student. You have already learned that one of 
the effects of heat on food is the development of flavor. 
Whether in all cases the food is more appetizing when the 
flavor is developed to the utmost, is very largely a matter 
of individual preference. The work in the lesson that 
follows is planned rather to show how the flavor of cer- 
tain vegetables may be either modified or developed, 
than to prescribe specific rules for the cooking of any of 
the vegetables you will deal with. 

To Boil Cabbage 

Place the cabbage head down in a large pan of cold, 
salted water for some hours before cooking. This will 
freshen the cabbage in winter; in summer it will serve to 
remove worms. 

Cut the cabbage into quarters; remove the core and 
the outside leaves if these are wilted. Separate the sec- 
tions into leaves, cut away the larger and harder mid- 
ribs, and wash thoroughly. 

Divide the portion of cabbage given you into two parts. 
Cook one in salted water, the other in water to which 
baking soda has been added in the proportion of one 
teaspoonful to a quart of water. The water in each case 
must be rapidly boiling, and generous in quantity. Allow 

15 



16 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

the cabbage to boil for 20-25 m. It may then be drained, 
seasoned, and served. 

Compare the flavor resulting from the two methods. 
Do you observe a difference in consistency? 

Escalloped Cabbage with Tomato 

Arrange alternate layers of cooked and well-seasoned 
cabbage and tomato sauce (see recipe) in a baking dish. 
Cover with buttered crumbs (see page 9), and bake 
until crumbs are brown. 

Tomato Sauce 
Ingredients. 

1 to 4 tablespoonfuls butter. 3^ teaspoonful pepper. 

4 tablespoonfuls flour 2 cups sifted tomato pulp. 



-^ teaspoonful salt. 



Method. Proceed as for Medium White Sauce, page 9. 

Note. Sifted tomato pulp is the pulp of tomatoes, either canned 
or fresh, which has been freed from skin and seeds by pressing through 
a colander with a wooden pestle, or the old-fashioned wooden potato 
masher. Care should be taken that none of the soft pulp is rejected, 
only the skin and seeds. 

Escalloped Cabbage with Cheese 

Proceed as for Escalloped Cabbage with Tomato, using 
grated cheese instead of tomato sauce for the alternate 
layers. 

Compare the cabbage in the two dishes. Which had 
the tenderer fiber? 

Buttered Onions 

Peel small onions under water (to avoid any effect on 
the eyes), cook one or two in a small quantity of boiling 



STUDY OF GREEN VEGETABLES IN COOKING 17 

water until tender, cook the rest in a large amount of 
water, and change the water twice during the cooking 
process. When done, coat the onions with melted butter, 
roll in fine crumbs, place on serving dish, and set in the 
oven for a moment to brown the crumbs. 

Compare the degree of flavor that resulted from the 
two methods of cooking. 

Mashed Turnips 

Wash and pare two turnips. Cut one into thin slices, 
cut the other into quarters. Boil both until tender. 
Drain and mash each one separately, season with salt 
and pepper, and serve very hot. 

Compare the flavor resulting from the two methods. 




SPINACH IN CROUSTADE 

spinach in Croustades 

Wash the spinach leaf by leaf in abundance of water, 
removing thoroughly every trace of grit. Cook it, 
closely covered, in the water that clings to the leaves, 
turning it over once in a while to prevent its burning. 
During the latter part of the cooking process the lid may 
be removed, to encourage evaporation, and the spinach 



18 



PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 



cooked down until the water is practically absorbed. 
Chop, season with salt and pepper, and serve in crou- 
stades, mixed with chopped, hard-boiled egg, and gar- 
nished with slices of the white and a little sifted yolk. 

Cook another portion of spinach in a generous quan- 
tity of water, softened with baking soda, as in Boiled 
Cabbage. 

Compare the flavor of the spinach cooked in both ways. 

To Make Croustades. Remove the crust from a stale, 
brick-shaped loaf, and cut the crumb into eight cubes. 
(In making the dish for a family the crust may be removed 
and the loaf used entire.) 

Dip five sides of each cube into melted butter, and 
brown delicately on a hot pan. Remove the crumb, 
leaving a box-shaped receptacle to be filled with the 
spinach and then garnished. 




BREAD CROUSTADES, CROUTONS, ETC. 



Creamed Carrots 

Wash and scrape the carrots, and cut them into small 
cubes. Cook until tender in a small quantity of water. 
Drain, mix the water in which the carrots were cooked 
with a little milk or cream, and use this hquid to make a 



STUDY OF GREEN VEGETABLES IN COOKING 19 

sauce in which the carrot cubes are to be served. Follow 
method for making Medium White Sauce, page 9. 

Another portion of the cooked carrot cubes may be 
served in a sauce made of milk alone. 

Compare the flavor of the two dishes. 

Boiled Squash 

A young summer squash needs merely to be washed, 
pared, and cut into small pieces. Winter squash, if the 
shell is soft enough, must be peeled, and the seeds must 
be removed. Divide your portion of the vegetable into 
two parts, cook one part in boiling salted water, the other 
in unsalted water, until tender. Drain, mash, squeeze 
out the excess of water, and season with butter, salt, and 
pepper. 

Compare the flavor of the squash boiled in salted with 
that boiled in unsalted water. 

Boiled Parsnips 

Take two parsnips, wash one of them, and cook it whole 
in boiling water until tender, when the peel can be easily 
removed. Scrape or pare the other, cut it into thin 
slices, and cook until tender in boiling water. Serve with 
butter. Compare the flavor of the two parsnips. 

Experiments to Aid or Confirm Inferences 

I 

Efifect of Certain Salts on the Solvent Properties of Water 

1. Take three small beakers — A, B, and C. Half fill A 
with a solution of bicarbonate of soda, in the proportion 



20 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

of one-half teaspoon of soda to one pint of water. Half 
fill B with a solution of common salt, in the proportion 
of one tablespoonful of salt to one pint of water. Use C 
for a control test. To each beaker add a pinch (tV tea- 
spoon) of ground coffee, sprinkling it lightly on the water. 
Note results carefully as to taste and color of solution. 

2. Repeat, using in each case a pinch of finely chopped 
parsley. 

3. Repeat, using scraped onion or turnip. If definite 
results are not observed in the cold the solutions may be 
heated. 

II 

The Effect of Acid on Cellulose 

1. Take two portions, A and B, of cotton wool, filter 
paper, or fiber from some fresh vegetable. Treat A with 
ordinary water, B with vinegar or acetic acid. Heat if 
necessary. Note results carefully. 

TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1. The function of green vegetables in the diet. 

2. Foods which promote energy directly, by com- 
bustion in the body, e. g., the organic compounds of 
carbon. Foods which promote energy indirectly, e. g., 
those whose salts affect osmotic pressure, or promote 
alkalinity of the blood, or stimulate by chemical or 
mechanical means the vegetative functions of the body. 

3. The value of organic vs. inorganic salts in the diet. 

4. Plants as the source of the world's food supply. 

5. The brassica, or brassicacese family. The char- 
acteristic of this group which is of most importance to 
the student of foodstuffs. 

6. Varieties of cabbage: the popular distinction 
between kale and cabbage. Digestibility of raw cab- 
bage as compared with that of cooked cabbage. 



QUESTIONS 21 

QUESTIONS 

1. Classify the vegetables used in the class work as: 
(1) Sweet-juiced, or possessing agreeable flavor, which 
the object in cooking should be to enhance or preserve; 
and (2) strong-juiced, or having a coarser flavor, which 
the object of cooking should be to modify or lessen. 
Make this classification according to your own prefer- 
ences regarding the flavor of the vegetables. 

2. State three methods of cooking strong-juiced 
vegetables, and name as many vegetables as you can 
which may be cooked with most advantage by each of 
the three methods. 

3. State three methods of cooking sweet-juiced vege- 
tables, and name as many vegetables as you can which 
may best be cooked by each of these three methods. 

4. Name six vegetables with which you are familiar, 
preferably others than those which you have studied 
in class, and give, in tabular form, their characteristics, 
the object in cooking them, and how this object is at- 
tained. Consult instructor before framing your table. 

5. Have you discovered any new principle of food 
preparation in your work with green vegetables? State 
this principle. Cite as many instances as you can of the 
application of this principle in the preparation of food. 

6. Trace the relation of the experiments to the 
practical work in the cooking of the vegetables you have 
just dealt with. 

7. Classify all the foods you have dealt with from 
the first lesson in this course into: (a) nutritious; (6) 
healthful, and (c) those which are both nutritious and 
healthful. (See charts, pages 217-34, for the protein con- 
tent and calorific value of the foods used.) 

8. Define the terms wholesome, cheap, economical as 
applied to foods. Which food used in class do you con- 
sider wholesomest? cheapest? most economical? 

EXERCISES 

1. Cook a red cabbage in water softened by baking 
soda. Devise some means of restoring the color. 



22 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

2. What two other methods of cooking sweet-juiced 
vegetables, fitted to retain or develop their flavor, could 
be made use of? Demonstrate their expediency by em- 
ploying these methods in cooking two vegetables. 

3. Make a puree of any vegetable in season, using 
two methods, one to develop the flavor of the vege- 
table, the other to reduce it. 

4. Devise two methods of making creamed celery, 
one which shall utilize every particle of the flavor of 
the celery, another which shall reduce the flavor as 
much as possible. 

5. Cook cauliflower in two ways, one with the object of 
developing, the other of reducing its flavor. From your 
results decide whether you consider cauliflower a sweet- 
juiced or a strong-juiced vegetable. 

6. Make a parsnip stew in two ways, in the first, re- 
taining the flavor in the parsnips; in the second, draw- 
ing out the flavor into the liquid of the stew. Neither 
salt nor soda is to be used. 

7. Make any dish which shall illustrate the softening 
of cellulose by the use of an appropriate reagent. 

8. Cook three vegetables not previously used, em- 
ploying for each some one of the three methods of re- 
ducing the flavor, or some one of the three methods of 
retaining it, discovered by your previous work. 

References 

Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XVI. 

Church. Foods, Part II. 

Conn. Bacteria, Yeast, and Molds in the Home, see Index. 

Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chaps. XIV and XVI. 

Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chap. XVI. 

Knight. Food and Its Functions, Lesson 34, and page 60, Combe's 

tables on the digestibility of foods. 
Parioa. Home Economics, see Index. 
Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, page 256 //. (Ed. 

1911.) 
Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. III. 
Thompson. Practical Dietetics, see Index. 
Wiley. Foods and Food Adulterants, Part VI. 
Bulletin 245, U. S. ^Dept. of Agriculture, Office of Experiment 

Stations, 




23 



CHAPTER IV 

THE EFFECT OF SUGAR ON CELLULOSE 

THE PRESERVATION OF THE COLOR OF FRUITS AND 

VEGETABLES 

THE JELLYING PRINCIPLE IN FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 

Apple Compote 

Boil together for 10-15 m. one cup of granulated sugar 
and one cup of water. If a scum arises this should be 
skimmed off. Cook in this syrup until tender one or more 
tart apples, previously cored and pared. A few cloves, 
or a bit of stick cinnamon may be cooked in the syrup to 
give flavor. Remove the apples when tender, fill the 
cavities w4th some bright jelly, and cook down the syrup 
until somewhat thick, pour over the apples, and serve 
with whipped cream (see recipe). 

Make a second dish of apples cooked in water alone, 
adding the sugar to the liquid in the saucepan after the 
apples have been removed. Soft or distilled water 
should be used. 

Compare the appearance, consistency, and flavor of 
the apples cooked in both ways. Save a portion of the 
first dish for examination later. 

To Whip Heavy Cream. Beat the cream in a large bowl 
with a Dover beater until it is thick. If the cream is very 
heavy the bowl should be chilled by standing it in ice 
water, and the beating should not be too vigorous, lest 
the cream turn to butter. Sweeten and flavor to taste 

24 



EFFECT OF SUGAR ON CELLULOSE 25 

just before the whipping is completed. One-fourth as 
much of sugar as the volume of cream before whipping 
is sufficient to sweeten. A half-pint of cream will be 
enough to garnish thirty or more apples. 




APPLE COMPOTE GARNISHED WITH WHIPPED CREAM 

Ginger Pears 

Ingredients. Pears, sugar, water, ground ginger. 

Proportions. Equal quantities (by weight) of pears, 
sugar, and water. The pears should be weighed after 
being cored and pared. A pint of water is estimated to 
weigh a pound; a pound of granulated sugar measures 
practically a pint. Allow a tablespoonful of ground 
ginger to every cup of sugar. 

Method. Boil water, sugar, and ginger together for 
15-20 m. Add the pears, and cook until they are trans- 
parent. 

Note. The thin, yellow rind of one lemon, if boiled with the. syrup, 
improves the flavor of this dish. The juice of the lemon may be added 
when the whole is cooked. Ginger pears may be used as an accompani- 
ment to meat, as a substitute for sweet pickle. 

Repeat this dish, adding the sugar after the pears are 
cooked. 

Compare the results in the finished products. Save a 



26 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

portion of the first dish for comparison with the apple 
compote after the lapse of a few days; 

Cranberry Sauce 

Measure the cranberries. Measure half as much sugar 
as cranberries, and half as much water as sugar. 

Method I. Boil cranberries, water, and sugar together, 
and keep closely covered during the cooking. 

Method II. Cook cranberries and water together until 
the berries are tender. Remove from the fire and add 
sugar. 

Which sauce is the sweetest? Which is the brightest 
in color? In which are the berries the tenderer? What 
parallel results have you found in making the apple com- 
potes? the ginger pears? 

Green Peas 

Put on in boihng, slightly salted water, and cook, un- 
covered, until tender. Drain, season with butter, salt, 
and pepper, and serve hot. 

Cook another portion of peas in a similar fashion, but 
keep them closely covered during cooking. 

Compare both dishes of peas. What similar results 
have you found in the cooking of another dish in this 
lesson? 

Note. Bright cubes of carrot, young beets, or any of the green- 
leaved vegetables may be substituted for the peas, if these are not 
available. 

Apple Jelly 

Wash a sound apple, and cut it into quarters or eighths 
without paring or removing the core. Cook it in 
barely enough water to cover, until tender. Then mash 



TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 27 

it, and strain the juice through a jelly-bag. Boil the 
juice with an equal quantity of sugar, until when a 
little is dropped on a plate it '' jells." It may take 
from 20-30 m. Pour into glasses at once. 

Proceed as before, omitting the use of sugar. 

Compare the two. What is the effect of the sugar? 
Let stand for a few days and note any further differences. 

EFFECT OF PROLONGED COOKING OF FRUIT JELLY 

Choose a large, sound apple, and proceed as in Apple 
Jelly. As soon as jelly is formed pour off about half into 
a glass to ''set," and continue to boil the remainder for 
from 30-60 m. longer. 

Compare the consistency of the two portions. 

Jelly from Apple Parings vs. Jelly from Apple Flesh 

Make two portions of jelly, one from the parings alone 
of one or more apples, the other from the flesh of the same 
apples. 

Compare the two as to color, consistency, taste. 

Note. A more correct basis for comparison will be found if an 
equal weight of parings and flesh be used for the two jellies. 

Jelly from Turnips or Carrots 

Proceed as for Apple Jelly, omitting the use of sugar. 
<^ompare the result with the jelly made from fruit. 

TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1. The function of fruit in the diet. Two groups: 
the flavor fruits and the food fruits; examples of each. 

2. The main differences between '^ fruits" and ''vege- 
tables," as the terms are generally used. 

3. Fruitarian diet. The raw food diet. 

4. The pectin bodies. 



28 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

5. Levulose: how formed; its sweetening property iis 
compared with that of cane sugar. 

6. The manufacture of fruit jeUies; the canning and 
preserving industries. The Pure Food laws in their 
bearing on these. 

7. Preserving fruits and vegetables in the home. In 
what circumstances this is advisable, and under what 
conditions it may be an unwise expenditure of time and 
energy. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Enumerate the principles of food preparation which 
you have so far gained from your work. 

2. What fresh fruit yields the largest number of 
calories per pound? (See charts, Appendix A.) 

3. Account for the fact that a pound of strawberries 
contains more water than a pound of milk, yet milk 
is a liquid and strawberries are not. What other fruits 
or succulent vegetables contain more water than milk? 
(See charts.) 

4. Considering the cost in relation to the calorific 
value of fruits and green vegetables, what justifies their 
use in the diet? 

5. Why may unripe fruits better be used for jelly- 
making than over-ripe fruits? 

6. If three pounds of sugar were needed to sweeten 
a kettle of cranberry sauce made by Method II, how 
much would be needed to obtain the same degree of 
sweetness if the sauce were made by Method I? 

EXERCISES 

1. Demonstrate by two methods of cooking some vege- 
table substance the effect of sugar on cellulose. 

2. Makea dish which shall show the effect of cooking 
sugar with an acid. 

3. Show, by the cooking of some bright-colored veget- 
able, the effect of keeping the vegetable closely covered 
during cooking. 

4. Proceed as in 3, using some bright-colored fruit. 



EXERCISES 29 

5. Try the effect on the color of fruit of cooking it 
in: (1) a sugar solution; (2) ordinary water; (3) dis- 
tilled water. 

6. Make candied yams, or candied sweet potatoes. 
What principle is illustrated in this dish? 

7. Make a sweet pickle of any suitable fruit. What 
principle is illustrated here? 

8. Using some other fruit, make a dish similar to Ginger 
Pears, and devise some method of testing whether the 
ginger exercised an antiseptic action. 

9. Ask your instructor for a sample of fruit preserved 
by the addition of some harmful or deleterious substance, 
and apply the tests for the discovery of this substance. 

10. Using one kind of fruit, apply to several samples 
of it as many as possible of the methods of home preser- 
vation, and set the results away for later examination. 

References 

Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XVII. 

Chittenden. The Nutrition of Man, p. 290-1. (Ed. 1907.) 

Church. Foods, Part II. 

Conn. Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home, see Index. 

Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chap. XIV. 

Knight. Food and its Functions, Lesson 8. 

Lusk. The Science of Nutrition, see Index. 

Parloa. Home Economics, see Index. 

Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, p. 256//'. (Ed. 1911.) 

Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. IV. 

Thompson. Practical Dietetics, see Index. 

Wiley. Foods and Food Adulterants, Part VI. 

Farmers' Bulletins 203, 293, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, and Bul- 
letins 107 and 132,,Offi,ce of Experiment Stations, U. S. Dept. of Agri- 
culture. * , 



CHAPTER V 
EGGS 

Test for Freshness. Place perfectly fresh eggs (under 
24 hours old if possible), ordinarily fresh eggs (perhaps 
a week old) , rather stale (2-3 weeks) , and very stale eggs 
(a month old or more) in a large bowl or a battery jar 
containing a saturated solution of common salt. 

Remove them to a vessel containing a 10 per cent salt 
solution. 

Remove them to a vessel containing faucet water. 

Remove them to a vessel containing pure (distilled) 
water. 

Observe in which of the solutions the eggs sank most 
readily. 

Weight and Volume of Eggs. Ascertain by weighing 

(a) the number of eggs of average size in one pound; 

(b) the weight of a single egg of average size; (c) the 
weight of the shell; (d) the volume of one egg; (e) the 
volume, respectively, of the yolk and the white of one 
egg. 

STUDY OF EGGS IN COOKING 

Soft and Hard-cooked Eggs 

Select five eggs of equal size. Place No. 1 in one pint 
of boiling water in a saucepan. Remove from fire, cover, 
and let stand in a warm place 20 m. 

30 



EGGS 31 

Place No. 2 in a quart bowl, pour over it one pint of 
boiling water, cover, and let stand for 8-10 m. 

Place No. 3 in one pint of boiling water, and let it boil 
rapidly for 3 m. 

Place No. 4 in one pint of cold water, and let it come 
to a boil. 

Place No. 5 in one pint of boiling water, and let it boil 
rapidly for 20 m. 

Cut the eggs open with a knife, and compare the result 
of the different methods of cooking on the yolk and on 
the white. 

Note. This work can be divided among five students, and planned 
so that the eggs may be ready for comparison at the same time, e.g., 
No. 2 should be started 12 m. after No. 1, No. 3 started 5 m. after 
No. 2, etc. 

After comparison the eggs may be seasoned and eaten on toast, either 
^vith or without the addition of a cream sauce. 

Creamed Egg on Toast 

Make a half-cupful of medium white sauce (see page 9), 
and chop into it the hard-boiled egg from No. 5. The 
mixture can then be served on a freshly made piece of 
toast. 

Compare the solubility of the hard-boiled white and 
yolk as they were stirred into the sauce. 

Egg Lemonade 
Ingredients. 

1 egg. 2 tablespoonfuls sugar. 

Juice half a lemon. 1 cup milk or water, either hot 

or cold. 

Method. Beat the egg, stir in the lemon juice (note 
the effect), then beat with a fork until thin. Add the 



32 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

sugar, then the milk or other Hquid, beat all together, 
and pour over chopped ice in a tall glass, if it is to be 
used cold. If a warm drink is preferred the milk or water 
can be heated, and the sugar dissolved in the hot liquid 
before it is added to the egg. 

Note the effect of the lemon juice on the egg; note also 
the effect of beating after the lemon juice was added. 

Soft Custard 

Ingredients. The essential ingredients are eggs, milk, 
water, sugar, salt. Optional: liquid flavoring extract, 
dry coffee, cinnamon, cloves, caramel, etc. 

Proportions. Four to six whole eggs, or six to eight 
yolks, to one quart of milk. One-half teaspoonful of 
salt, and three-quarters of a cup of sugar to the same 
quantity. One or two tablespoonfuls of water to each 
egg. 

Method. Beat the eggs with the water, add the sugar, 
then the milk, mixing well. Cook at a low temperature, 
or in a double boiler, until the custard is creamy. It must 
be stirred constantly while cooking. 

Note. 1. If soft custard curdles it can be beaten smooth with a 
Dover beater, provided this is done immediately. 

2. Dry flavors can be cooked with the custard, or boiled in the 
milk and then strained off. Liquid extracts may best be added to a 
soft custard after cooking. 

3. A delicious variety is obtained by pouring the soft custard over 
sliced oranges, or mixing it with crushed and sifted macaroons. 

Individual custards may be made by each student on 
the basis of one-half or three-quarters of a cup of milk. 
Some should be made with hot, and some with cold milk, 
and the flavor and texture compared. 



EGGS 33 

Baked Custard 

The ingredients, proportions, and methods of mixing are 
the same as for Soft Custard. The baked custard is 
cooked by means of oven poaching. 

To Poach in Oven. Set the baking dish in a pan of hot 
water in the oven, the water to reach as high as the level 
of the mixture in the dish. For a very delicate custard 
the water in the pan should not be allowed to boil. 

What principle of cooking is here applied? 

To Test when Cooked. A knife-blade thrust into the 
center of the custard comes out clean. 

Individual custards may be made by each student on 
the basis of one-half cup of milk. These custards should 
be made in three ways, namely, with the yolk alone, 
with the white alone, and with the whole egg. The same 
volume of each should be used, and the results compared 
as to flavor, consistency, and time occupied in cooking. 

Meringue for Custards 

Ingredients. White of egg, powdered or fine granu- 
lated sugar, salt, flavoring. 

Proportions. A pinch (tV teaspoonful) of salt, and two 
tablespoonfuls of sugar to each egg. Flavoring to taste. 

Method. Sprinkle salt on the white, and beat it stiff. 
Add the sugar gradually, beating it well in. Add the 
flavoring, and beat until smooth. 

The meringue can be piled on the top of the soft cus- 
tards when cold (why?), and the baked custards when 
cooked. In the latter case the custard may be returned 
to the oven for a few moments to brown the meringue. 



34 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

Molded Eggs 

Beat one egg, season with salt and pepper, and mix 
with twice its volume of milk. Divide the mixture into 
two parts, A and B. Pour A into a well-greased baking 
cup, set this into a saucepan of cold water, and cook until 
egg is firm. Proceed in the same manner with B, only 
in this case set the baking cup into directly boiling water, 
and cook until egg is firm. Unmold each on a lettuce 
leaf, and serve with broiled or baked tomatoes, or tomato 
sauce (see page 16). 

Compare the flavor of the dish cooked at initial high 
temperature with that cooked by gradually increasing 
heat. What other comparisons on this basis can you make 
from the work of this lesson? 




FOAMY OMELET 

Foamy Omelet 

Ingredients. Eggs, milk or water, seasoning, butter or 
oil to grease pan. 

Proportions. One tablespoonful of milk or water to each 
egg; seasoning to taste; one teaspoonful, or less, of butter. 

Method. Beat the yolk until thick, add the milk, and 
mix well. Season with pepper. Beat the white until stiff; 
add the salt while beating. Place the pan over the fire 



EGGS 35 

to melt the butter, cut or fold the white into the yolk, 
pour the mixture into the pan, and cook until just " set." 
The pan may be placed in the oven for a moment to dry 
the upper surface of the omelet. While still in the pan 
one-half of the omelet is turned over the other half by 
slipping a broad knife under the section farthest from the 
handle and turning it over on the other section. The omelet 
is then inverted on a hot platter and served at once. 

Note. Variations on the simple omelet may be made by such 
savory additions as mushrooms, oysters, chopped meat, fish or fowl, 
grated cheese, herbs, etc. Or such sweet additions as jelly, fresh or 
preserved fruits, sugar, honey, nuts, etc., may be used. These various 
additions are usually spread on the surface of the omelet before one- 
half is turned over the other. Or they may be cut or folded into the 
beaten white, or mixed with the yolk, or used as a garnish. 

Make a second omelet, using water instead of milk. 
Compare both as to flavor and consistency. 









X:^ 




^ 


*^-L_^* ■ 








'•* ' » _- ^ ^^^^0,^^ 







FOAMY OMELET GARNISHED WITH PEAS 

Experiments to Aid or Confirm Inferences 

I 

Behavior of Yolk and White of Egg toward Reagents 

used in Cooking 

1. Take two test tubes, A and B, half filled with pure 
water. To A add 4-5 cc. white of egg; to B add 4-5 cc. of 



36 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPAllATION 

the yolk. Shake well. Filter into clean test tubes. Heat 
filtrate. 

2. Place enough white of egg in a test tube to cover 
the bulb of a thermometer when this is inserted. Hold 
the test tube in a beaker of cold water over the Bunsen 
flame, and as the water heats take the thermometer 
reading at the following points:^ 

(a) At the first cloudy appearance. 

(b) At the formation of a tender jelly. 

(c) At the formation of a solid mass. 

Treat the yolk of egg in a similar manner, testing at 
(a) for the first coagulated flecks, and at (6) and (c) for 
the same condition produced in the white. 

3. Treat a little white of egg on a watch glass with a 
drop of hydrochloric or acetic acid. Treat a little of the 

•yolk in the same manner. 

II 
Difference in Composition of Yolk and White of Egg 

1. Into two test tubes place, respectively, small por- 
tions of the white and the yolk of egg. Add to each about 
twice its volume of ether or chloroform. Shake vigorously. 
Pour filtrate on absorbent paper. Have you found some 
substance in one which is not perceptibly present in the 
other? What is this substance? 

Ill 
Effect of Manipulation on Yolk and White of Egg 

1. Vigorously shake small quantities of the white and 
yolk of egg in test tubes to see which will form a froth. 
A few drops of water may be added. 

1 The temperature of the water will approximately correspond to that of the 
scalding, simmering, and boiling points which it is assumed have been studied in 
ftn elementary course. 



TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION — QUESTIONS 37 

TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1. The so-called '' perfect" foods, v/hy they are thus 
named, in what respects they are deficient. 

2. Comparison of the function of the yolk and the 
white of the egg. The relation of this function to their 
use in the diet. 

3. The proteins in egg, the fats, the salts. 

4. Effect of cooking on the digestibility of eggs. The 
digestibility of raw vs. lightly-cooked eggs. The three 
phases of digestibility, i. e., time, ease, and complete- 
ness. Further consideration of the digestibility of eggs 
under these headings. 

5. Iron and other minerals in organic vs. inorganic form. 

6. The different combinations of sulphur in the yolk 
and in the white of the egg. Their bearing on the use 
of eggs in the diet, particularly in diet for the sick. 

7. The specific gravity of a fresh egg. The causes of 
the putrefaction of eggs. Results of this putrefaction. 

8. The cold storage of eggs: legislation affecting this. 

9. Various methods of preserving eggs. 

10. The eggs of other birds which are used as food. 
Structure of the egg. 

11. Poultry farms, breeds for laying, etc. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why did the stale eggs float? Discuss fully. 

2. How many eggs would be needed to furnish a cup- 
ful of whites? a cupful of yolks? 

3. In which of the eggs in your first study (Soft and 
Hard-cooked Eggs) was the yolk the harder? In which 
the white? Account for this, What new principle in 
the preparation of food may be inferred? Has this 
principle held good in the case of vegetable foods? Cite 
instances. 

4. Name the chief reagents used in cooking^. 

5. Compare the effect of water, heat, acid, and manipu- 
lation on the yolk and the white of the egg. 

6. What properties of the egg were exemplified alike in 



38 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

making omelet and in making custard? In making egg 
lemonade and soft custard? 

7. Why is a little water used in making custard? 
Compare the use of water and milk in making omelets 
and custards. 

8. Can you infer any reason why the white of egg can 
be beaten to a froth and the yolk can not? Compare the 
effect of stirring, beating, and cutting or folding in the 
dishes made in this lesson. 

9. What new principle in the preparation of food have 
you learned from the recipe for Molded Eggs? 

10. Trace the relation of the Experiments to the 
practical work. 

11. In Experiment I, why had the filtrate to be heated 
to determine whether it held any substance in solution? 
Have you had a case when this could be inferred without 
heating the filtrate? 

12. At the present market price, what would be the 
cost of the day's energy if yielded by eggs alone? What 
would be the cost of the day's protein? 

13. Suggest suitable combinations of eggs with other 
foods, considering proportion of nutrients, palatability, 
cost. 

14. Compare the following methods of preserving eggs: 
oiling or varnishing, packing in salt, immersing in lime 
water, immersing in ''water glass." 

EXERCISES 

1. Procure six new-laid eggs. Coat the shell of one 
with oil, pack another in salt, immerse a third in lime 
water, immerse the fourth in "water glass," keep the 
fifth in the refrigerator. The sixth may be kept at ordi- 
nary temperature for purposes of comparison. Test 
each in salt solutions at intervals of one week until you 
determine the best method of preservation. 

2. Using some food of vegetable origin, make two 
dishes which shall show the results, respectively, of 
the employment of an initial high temperature and 
of gradually increasing heat. 




39 



40 



PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 



3. Show the results, on some food of animal origin, of 
cooking at an initial high temperature and by means of 
gradually increasing heat. 

4. Make a dish to demonstrate that the yolk of egg 
coagulates at a lower temperature than the white. 




POACHED EGG ABOVE CREAMED ONIONS IN CROUSTADE 



5. Demonstrate in the making of some dish the effect 
of acid on albumin. 

6. Scoop out a portion of the pulp from a fresh tomato, 
break a raw egg into the cavity, and bake in a hot oven. 
What principle of the preparation of food is illustrated 
here? 

7. Construct a dish in which as many as possible of 
the characteristic differences between the yolk and the 
white of the egg shall be illustrated. 

8. Make a dish which shall show the greater solubility 
of the cooked yolk than of the cooked white of egg. 

9. By making two cakes, or other dishes, show the 
capacity of the white of egg to hold the air when beaten, 
and the lack of this property in the yolk. 

10. Show, respectively, the effect of using milk and 
water in making some dish composed in large part of 
eggs. 

11. Combine eggs with any one or more foods already 
studied so as to make a well-balanced ration and an 
easily digested meal. Pay especial attention to a de- 



EXERCISES 41 

licioiis combination of flavors and to appetizing methods 
of cocking. Economy of time and money should also be 
taken into consideration. (Consult charts, Appendix A.) 

References 

Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XX. 
Church. Foods, Part III. 

Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chaps. VII and IX. 
Lassar-Cohn. Chemistry in Daily Life, Lesson III. 
Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Chap. IX. 
Thompson. Practical Dietetics, Eggs, see Index. 
Bulletin 28, Office of Experiment Stations, Department of Agricul- 
ture; F'armers' Bulletin 103, Department of Agriculture, etc. 



CHAPTER VI 

GELATINE 
STUDY OF GELATINE IN COOKING 

Lemon and Coffee Jellies 

Measure two teaspoonfuls of granulated gelatine. Add 
two tablespoonfuls of cold water. Mix, and allow to 
stand five minutes. 

Observe result. Has the gelatine dissolved? 

Add to above one-half cup of boiling water in which 
two tablespoonfuls of sugar have been dissolved. Stir 
until the mixture is liquified. Divide this mixture into 
two parts, A and B. To A add two tablespoonfuls of 
coffee extract; to B, two tablespoonfuls of lemon juice. 
Strain both portions into glasses and set away to cool. 

Note which stiffened the first. Compare the consistency 
of the two. 

Strawberry Whip 

One teaspoonful of gelatine and one tablespoonful of 
cold water. Let this stand five minutes, then add two 
tablespoonfuls of boiling water. Mix as before. Add 
one tablespoonful of strawberry jam or preserve. Set 
the mixture away to cool, and when thoroughly chilled, 
and beginning to '' set " a little round the edge, beat it 
with a Dover beater until frothy and thick. Place half 
of this whip for a garnish on each of the glasses of jelly 

42 



GELATINE 43 

already prepared. Or it may be molded and eaten by 
itself. 

Note. In the above recipes more gelatine than is really needed 
to stiifen a mold was used, on account of the time limit in class work. 
More coffee and lemon juice than necessary was also used, to empha- 
size the effect of each. 

To make Coffee Extract for Flavoring 

Beat one egg in one cup of cold water. Add one cup of 
rather finely ground coffee, and mix. Add mixture to 
four cups of boiling water, allow to boil 20 m., and strain 
the liquid through cheesecloth, or let it drip through a 
jelly-bag. 

Pineapple Jelly 

Proceed as for Strawberry Whip, using a tablespoonful 
of fresh, grated pineapple, or pineapple juice. Use from 
one-half to one tablespoonful of sugar to sweeten. 

Make a second pineapple jelly, using in this twice, or 
even three times the quantity of gelatine. 

Make a third jelly, using canned pineapple instead of 
fresh, or cooking the fresh pineapple before adding it to 
the dissolved gelatine. 

Compare the three and try to account for the differ- 
ences. 

Chicken Jelly, or Calves* Foot Jelly 

The bones alone from either a cooked or an uncooked 
chicken may be used, or lacking these a portion of raw 
chicken, preferably from a bony part. Crush thoroughly 
with a mallet, place in a stew pan, and barely cover with 
cold water. Bi'ing slowly to a boil, keeping stew pan 
closely covered, and allow to boil during the class period, 



44 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

perhaps longer, keeping up the quantity of water. 
Strain off Hquid, season to taste, and set in refrigerator 
until next day. A single calf's foot, skinned and cleaned, 
may be substituted for the chicken. 

Beef Jelly 

Cut into small pieces a portion of tendonous beef — 
preferably from the lower part of the shin or shank, 
where there is much gristle. From one-quarter to one- 
half pound will be sufficient. Proceed as for Chicken 
Jelly, except that this will probably need longer boiling. 

EFFECT OF PROLONGED COOKING ON GELATINE 

Hydrate and dissolve a quarter-box of gelatine, ac- 
cording to the directions on the box. Divide into two 
parts, A and B. With A proceed to add flavoring, etc., 
according to instructions. Put on B to boil, keeping 
up the quantity of liquid for at least an hour (if possible 
longer) before completing the recipe. Allow both por- 
tions to stand in a cool place until A has solidified. 

Compare the two. Let both stand until next day. 
Compare again as to flavor and consistency. 

GENERAL RULES FOR MAKING GELATINE JELLIES 

1. Hydrate the dry gelatine in from four to six times 
its volume of cold water. 

2. Dissolve it over hot water, or by adding an equal 
volume of boiling water to the hydrated gelatine, or by 
adding any hot liquid such as coffee or milk. 

3. Sweeten with one-fourth as much sugar as the 
volume of jelly to be made, e. g., sl cup of sugar for a 
quart of jelly, etc. Exception, omit sugar wholly or in 



46 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

part when canned or preserved fruits are to be used, 
since these are already sweetened. Also in making a 
milk jelly, or a coffee jelly, most persons prefer to use 
only half the quantity of sugar given above. 

4. Flavor with one-fourth to one-half as much liquid, 
e. g., fruit juice, cider, wine, etc., as the volume of jelly 
desired. Exception, lemon; of this one-half as much as 
of the other flavors will be found sufficient. 

Note. The rules given above are scarcely more than suggestions 
to inexperienced workers. They can be modified or adapted to indi- 
vidual taste, as experience directs. 

COMPARISON OF COMMERCIAL GELATINE 

To the Student. In this work the class should be organ- 
ized into as many groups as there are brands of commercial 
gelatine to be studied. The groups may consist of two or 
more students. A table should be framed by each group, 
and filled out under the following heads after its particu- 
lar brand of gelatine has been studied: (1) Name, of 
commercial variety. (2) Description — color, light or 
darker; texture, whether finely or coarsely granulated, 
shredded, in sheets, etc. (3) Price per box. (4) Volume 
in box. (5) Yield in jelly. (6) General Characteristics, 
e. g., easy or difficult of hydration, easily or difficultly 
soluble, yielding a clear or a dull jelly, possessing or not 
possessing an acid reaction, having or not having a strong 
odor or flavor, and being easily affected by acid. 

In order to test the gelatine four kinds of jelly 
should be made from each box, namely, milk, lemon, 
orange, and coffee. At the close of the lesson the work 
of all the groups should be compared, and a complete 
table framed. (See table on page 47.) 



GELATINE 



47 



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H 

GO 

2 
u 

H 
O 

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K 
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m 
o 
>j 
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;? 
w 
O 


















































































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^ (N CO -^ lO O 


^ (M 00 ■* lO o 


r-( (M CO r}< lO CO 


--H (M CO rt< lO O 


H '-5 




















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0- 










z 
o 

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DS 

o 
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48 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

Experiments to Aid or Confirm Inferences 

I 
Comparison of Gelatine and Albumin 

1. Compare the appearance of commercial gelatine 
with that of dried egg albumin. Of thoroughly hydrated 
gelatine with that of fresh white of egg. 

2. Treat about 4 grams of hydrated gelatine and of 
fresh white of egg with 15-20 cc. cold water in test tubes, 
and allow to stand 10-15 m. Note solubility in each 
case. 

3. Apply heat (water bath) to test tubes from 2. Note 
result. 

4. Divide the gelatine from 3 into two equal parts, 
A and B. To A add enough cold water to bring up the 
total volume of water used to 56 cc. To B add a similar 
volume of a mixture of water and vinegar in equal parts. 
Stand both A and B in a cool place until no further change 
takes place. 

5. Recall the effect of acid on albumin (see page 36). 

6. Recall the effect of beating on both albumin (page 
36) and gelatine (page 42). 

7. Arrange in tabular form the effects of water, heat, 
acid, and manipulation on albumin and gelatine re- 
spectively. Consult instructor before framing your 
table. 

II 

Chemical Tests for Protein 

1. Make a solution of egg albumin, by vigorously 
shaking a few cc. of white of egg in 15-20 times its volume 
of water. Divide into four parts — A, B, C, and D. 



GELATINE 49 

To A add concentrated nitric acid. Note precipitate, 
and its color. Boil; note change in color. After cooling 
add ammonia water; note further color change. 

Note. This is known as the xanthoproteic test for albumin and 
other "simple proteins," and its characteristic color reactions indicate 
the presence of these bodies. 

2. To B add a few drops of Millons reagent. Note 
precipitate, and its color change when boiled. 

Note. This is the most delicate test for protein, and will indicate 
the presence of even a trace of this substance by the characteristic 
color reaction, though no precipitate will be formed when only a mi- 
nute quantity of protein is present. 

3. To C add a saturated solution of magnesium sul- 
phate. 

4. To D add tannic acid or a solution of tannin. 
Repeat this series of tests, applying them to solutions 

of gelatine of equal strength. Carefully compare the 
results with the results obtained in the case of albumin. 
What inference may be drawn from this series of experi- 
ments as a whole? 

Ill 
Action of Pineapple Juice on Gelatine and Albumin 

1. Place in two test tubes 8 cc. each of gelatine and 
albumin prepared as in Experiment I, 2, page 48. Add 
to each test tube an equal volume of fresh pineapple juice, 
mix well, and let stand 30 m. Divide the contents of 
each test tube into four equal parts. Apply to each of 
these four portions of gelatine and albumin, respectively, 
the following reagents: 

(a) The xanthoproteic test. 

(6) A solution of magnesium sulphate (see II, 3). 

(c) Acetic acid. 

id) Heat. 



50 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

Compare the results in the present instance with the 
characteristic reactions of gelatine and albumin to the 
same reagents. Should you say that the pineapple juice 
brought about a chemical change? Is the resulting prod- 
uct the same in the case of the two food substances? 

TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1. Sources of commercial gelatine; the various ani- 
mal tissues which yield gelatine; gelatine from fish. 

2. Manufacture of commercial gelatine; cause of the 
acidity of certain brands. 

3. Digestibility of gelatine, its ''acid-fixing" proper- 
ties, its absorbability. 

4. The function of gelatine in the body. Is it a ''pro- 
tein sparer"? Is it a source of energy? Is it a tissue 
builder? 

5. "Fixed" or "tissue" (organized) albumin of body, 
compared with the "circulating" albumin. 

G. Bromelin and other ferments. 

7. Peptones and other products of digestion. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Under what circumstances may an extra quantity 
of gelatine be used for a mold? When may less than the 
average amount be used? 

2. Account for the difference in the consistency of 
the coffee jelly as compared with the other jellies made 
on the same basis. 

3. Name four possible causes for the persistent lique- 
faction of a gelatine jelly. How may each be treated? 

4. What may be done to avoid the "curdling" of a 
milk jelly? 

5. Estimate from your work with gelatine what is the 
smallest percentage of this substance that can be used 
to stiffen a mold. 

6. What percentage of albumin is the minimum needed 
to stiffen a mold? (Review work with eggs.) 



QUESTIONS 



51 



7. Compare gelatine and albumin as to source, com- 
position, behavior in cooking, and function in the body. 

8. Similarly compare gelatine and pectin. 

9. With what foods may gelatine best be combined? 
When is a gelatine dessert most appropriate for dinner? 

10. Suggest some dietetic uses of fresh pineapple. 

11. Which of the brands of commercial gelatine studied 
would you choose for use in the home? Which for class 
work? Why? 

12. What are the characteristics of a well-made dish 
of gelatine jelly? 




TOMATO JELLY IN RING MOLD. GARNISHED WITH CELERY AND 

LETTUCE 



EXERCISES 

1. Make tomato jelly in a ring; fill the center with 
blanched and curled celery. Improvise a ring mold. 

2. Mold fruits, nuts, etc., in a given design in a clear 
gelatine jelly. 

3. Make a ribbon jelly, using milk for one layer, yolk 
of egg, coffee, or strawberry preserve for the others. 
The milk and yolk of egg should be flavored with fruit 
juice. 

4. Make a milk jelly flavored with lemon juice. 

5. Bavarian cream is composed of gelatine jelly, 
flavored, sweetened, and beaten to a froth, mixed with 
whipped cream. Make a peach, chocolate, or lemon 
Bavarian cream. 

6. Combine eggs and gelatine in some dish which shall 



52 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

illustrate any one or more opposite properties of albumin 
and gelatine. 

7. Make a dish which shall illustrate the hardening of 
albumin by heat and the hardening of gelatine by cold. 
The gelatine and albumin must be used in the same dish. 

8. Using both eggs and gelatine in the same dish, il- 
lustrate the effect on both albumin and gelatine of beat- 
ing or whipping. 

9. Combine eggs and gelatine in the same dish in such 
a way that some characteristic property of the yolk will 
be counteracted by the use of gelatine. 

10. Make some dish which shall show the solubiUty 
of albumin, the hardening of gelatine by cold, and its 
capacity of being beaten to a froth. 

11. Substitute gelatine for albumin in the making of 
some dish where a similarity between the two renders 
such substitution possible. 

12. Use eggs and gelatine in one dish in such a way as 
to show the effect of water, heat, and acid on both food 
substances. 

13. Devise in the making of some dish a method of 
demonstrating the effect of fresh pineapple juice on the 
albumin of egg. 

14. Combine with gelatine some other food substance, 
and a single condimental ingredient, so that the right pro- 
portion of protein and energy for one-fourth day's ration 
shall be furnished by the cqmbination. 

References 

Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chaps. V and XVI. 

Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chaps. Ill and IX, 

Lassar-Cohn. Chemistry in Daily Life, Lesson HI. 

Lusk. The Science of Nutrition, Chap. II. 

Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Chap. XI. 



CHAPTER VII 

FISH 

To the Student. Since fish contains both albumin and 
gelatine, and since — as you have recently learned ■^- 
these two food substances make an entirely different re- 
sponse to the chief reagents used in cooking, the prepara- 
tion of fish for the table offers an interesting problem. 




BLACK BASS 

Two classes of fish are to be studied in this lesson. 
Catfish (sometimes called '' bullhead ")> eels, or salmon, 
may be used as an example of one class; codfish, had- 
dock, or flounder as an example of the other class. Five 
methods of cooking each kind of fish should be employed, 
and their results compared. The Variations may be 
worked on by a special group of students, or assigned for 
another lesson, or required for home work. Consult in- 
structor as to the omission or assignment of this work, 

53 



54 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

STUDY OF FISH IN COOKING 
To Boil Fish 

Lower the fish gently into sufficient boiUng water to 
cover, and allow the water merely to bubble gently 
until fish is cooked. 

Variation. Acidulate the water with vinegar, a table- 
spoonful to a pint of water, or season it further by the 
addition of carrot, onion, bay leaf, thyme, etc. 

Note. The time allowance for boiling fish is usually from six to ten 
or more minutes for each pound. (See time table, Appendix B.) But 
since the time depends greatly on the shape and size of the fish — or 
the cut — the following test will be found much more reliable: Insert 
a fork between the bone and the flesh of the fish at the thickest part, 
and if the flesh can be lifted or separated readily from the bone the 
fish is cooked. To prolong the cooking further mil spoil both texture 
and flavor. 

See note following To Steam Fish. 

To Steam Fish 

Place the fish on a plate in a steamer, and allow it to 
cook for 8-10 m. to a pound, or until done. For the 
small quantity often used in class work, a steamer may 
be improvised by placing the piece of fish in a covered 
strainer suspended over a saucepan of boiling water. 

Variation. Season the fish with salt and pepper before 
placing it in the steamer, or cover it with very thin strips 
of salt pork. 

Note. Fish for either boiling or steaming should be placed on a 
plate, or in a wire basket, and this tied in a piece of netting or cheese- 
cloth, so that the fish can be removed without being broken. 

To Bake Fish 

Dredge the fish with flour which has been seasoned 
with salt and pepper. Place it, for convenience in lifting 



FISH 56 

out, on strips of netting or cheeseclotli on a greased rack 
in a baking pan. Bake from 10 to 12 m. to a pound, or 
until cooked, basting frequently with melted butter to 
which has been added a very little water. Or strips of 
fat salt pork may be placed on the fish, which in melting 
will furnish liquid for basting. 

Variation. Add to the basting liquid for a fish of 
ordinary size the juice of one lemon and one teaspoonful 
of onion juice. 

To Broil Fish 

Wipe the fish dry, and brush it lightly with oil or 
melted butter. Place it in a double wire broiler, and 
broil over a clear fire, turning every other minute until 
both sides are a light, even brown. Remove it carefully 
from the broiler, using a sharp knife, if necessary, to free 
it from adhesions. 

Variation. Add to the oil or butter with which the 
fish is greased a little lemon juice, vinegar, or onion juice. 

Note. Only small fish, or larger when these are cut into fillets, 
cutlets, or steaks, are suitable for broiling in class work. 

To Fry Fish 

Wipe the fish dry, and season with salt and pepper. 
Roll in fine, sifted crumbs (see page 10), then dip in a 
mixture of beaten egg and water, two tablespoonfuls of 
water to one egg, roll again lightly in the crumbs, and fry 
from three to six minutes in deep fat. (See page 121.) 

Variation. Place the fish for half an hour or more be- 
fore frying it in a marinade composed of three parts of 
vinegar to one part of oil. (See page 117.) ' 

Note. Only small ^sh, or larger when cut into fillets, or steaks, are 
suitable for frying. 



56 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

SAUCES FOR FISH 
HoUandaise Sauce 

Ingredients and Proportions. Equal parts of un- 
beaten egg, butter, and boiling water. One-eighth as 
much vinegar or lemon juice as butter. Salt to taste, and 
cayenne or paprika. 

Method. Cream the butter, add the egg and the other 
ingredients, and cook over hot water, beating all the 
time with a Dover beater until the sauce is thick. 

Drawn Butter Sauce 

Ingredients and Proportions. To each cupful of thin 
cream add one tablespoonful of butter and one-half table- 
spoonful of flour rubbed together. Seasoning in the 
proportion for Medium White Sauce. (See page 9.) 

Method. The whole may be cooked together until the 
mixture comes to a boil, or the method used in making 
Medium White Sauce may be employed. 

Piquante Sauce 

Proceed as for Medium White Sauce, only instead of 
milk use a brown stock made ])y dissolving one or two 
bouillon cubes in as many cups of water. Add to sauce 
chopped onions, capers, pickles, in the proportions of one 
tablespoonful of each to a cup of the sauce. Add further 
about two tablespoonfuls of vinegar to one cup of sauce, 
and boil until the pickles are hot through. 

TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1. Tests for the freshness of fish, danger from the use 
of stale fish, conditions under which ptomaines may be 
developed in fish. 



QUESTIONS 57 

2. Methods of preserving fish:' cold storage, canning, 
salting, drying, etc. Commercial industries based on 
these methods. 

3. Fish oils, fish roe, caviare, anchovy paste, and 
other preparations. 

4. Fish considered as a "brain food." The grounds 
from which this fallacy arose. Nutritive value and 
digestibility of fish. 

5. Classification of various fish on the basis of their 
composition. (See charts, Appendix A.) 

6. Pure Food laws as they relate to fish. 

7. The economics of fish culture, general legislation 
regarding fish and fisheries, international relations on 
this subject, etc. 

8. The great fisheries of the United States, the great 
fisheries of the world, the work of the Fish Commission 
of the United States. 



QUESTIONS 

1. Compare fish with eggs and gelatine as regards its 
behavior during cooking. 

2. What was the nature of the scum that was formed 
during the boiling of fish? Was this formed during any 
of the other processes of cooking fish? 

3. Compare the effect of the five methods of cooking 
on the types of fish used. Which class of fish do you 
consider the best adapted to frying, to baking, etc.? 
Why? 

4. Which sauce would you choose to accompany cod- 
fish, haddock, or any fish of this class? Which to ac- 
company salmon, mackerel, or any richer fish? Name 
some other sauces appropriate to be served with fish. 

5. What classes of foods should be combined with fish 
in order to make a well-balanced meal? 

6. Discuss the place of fish in the diet, as regards econ- 
omy, digestibility, and ease of preparation. 

7. Give three reasons why fish culture is important 
from the standpoint of economics. 



58 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

8. What fish is said to yield the ''largest amount of 
nutriment for a given sum of any animal food"? 

9. Why is the water content of dried codfish higher 
than that of fresh? (See charts, Appendix A.) 

10. Considering the amount of water and of refuse in 
dried and in fresh codfish, which is the more economical 
purchase? (See charts, Appendix A.) 

11. When perch is ten cents a pound and halibut is 
twenty cents which is the most economical purchase? 
State your reasons fully. 

12. Taking all factors into consideration, which is the 
most expensive fish to purchase for food? Justify your 
answer. 

EXERCISES 

1. Make a fish chowder using milk, a fish chowder using 
tomato. Why is this dish called chowder? 

2. Utilize left-over fish in making a fish souffle, a kedje- 
ree, a chartreuse, or a fish casserole. What is the origin 
of these different terms? 

3. Ask your instructor for an illustration of fish baked 
in an upright position, and using a fish weighing from 
four to six pounds, cook this in the same manner, so 
that your dish may seem an exact reproduction of the 
illustration. Or copy the illustration on page 59. 

4. Make a turban of flounder, proceeding as in 3 with 
regard to the copying of an illustration. 

5. Make a planked fish, proceeding as in 3 or 4. 

6. Plan and carry out a simple dinner, sufficient for 
one person, consisting of fish, a sauce, two vegetables, 
bread and butter, and a simple dessert. The cost should 
not exceed twenty or twenty-five cents, and the ration 
should be balanced. 

7. Plan and carry out a luncheon for four persons 
having codfish balls for the main dish. The total cost 
should not exceed fifty cents, and the meal should be 
balanced. 

8. Make a dish of finnan haddie, which, with an ap- 
propriate sauce and one vegetable, shall furnish a suffi- 




59 



60 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

cieiit and w(41-l)Hlaii('(Ml nuvil. The cost should not 
exceed ten cents. 

Notes. When fisli are to be cooked whole, the head and tail are 
usually left on, but the fins should be removed. 

Scales can be scraped from fish by holding the knife with the blade 
nearly perpendicular to the skin of the fish, but slanting slightly out- 
ward, and scraping from head to tail. 

Fresh-water fish are often improved by soaking them in salted water 
for 30 m. before cooking. 

A fish platter may be effectively garnished with cress or parsley, 
olives or radishes, slices of cucumber or slices of lemon. 

References 

Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XTX. 

Church. Foods, Part III. 

Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chajx V. 

Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. VHI. 

Thompson. Practical Dietetics, Fish. 

Wiley. Foods and Their Adulteration, Part HI. 

Farmers' Bulletin 85, Fish as Food, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 







I'ICKEREL 



61 



CHAPTER VIII 

OYSTERS 

To the Student. Before beginning to cook the oysters 
it is well to identify roughly four distinct parts whose 
peculiarities have an important bearing on the correct 
preparation of this shellfish. These are: (1) the liver, 
which is situated in the soft body or fleshy part of the 
oyster. (2) The muscle, which holds the oyster to the 
shell. (3) The " mantle." (4) The gills. These last, 
situated inside of the '^ mantle," furnish a test when the 
oyster is cooked. When they separate from one another 
— somewhat like the partly opened leaves of a book — 
and become frilled or puckered a little at the edges, the 
oyster is cooked, and if the application of heat is pro- 
longed much beyond this stage there is injury to flavor 
and consistency. 

From six to ten small oysters should be used in this 
lesson by each student. One is to be immersed in vinegar 
and allowed to stand until the close of the lesson. One 
is to be saved uncooked for comparison. Two or more 
of the various cooking processes may be applied to the 
rest of the oysters — arranging the work so that all of 
the recipes may be tried by as many groups of students 
as possible — and the effect of the different methods 
should be compared as to flavor and consistency. 

62 



OYSTERS 63 

STUDY OF OYSTERS IN COOKING 
Oyster Stew 

1 pint oysters. 2 tablespoonfuls butter. 

1 pint milk. Seasoning to taste. 

Strain the oysters, and heat the oyster Uquor until it 
boils. Add the milk, previously heated. Lastly add the 
oysters, the seasoning, and the butter, and cook until 
the gills separate and " frill." 

Repeat this process, using cold milk, and heating the 
mixture until the oysters are cooked. Compare the flavor 
of the two dishes. What parallel result have you found 
in any of your previous exercises in cooking? 

Repeat the process, first heating the milk, adding to 
it the cold oyster liquor, etc., and heating the mixture 
until the oysters are cooked. Compare with the first 
method used as to the consistency of the two dishes. 

Note. The amount given above will serve four persons. Proportion- 
ate quantities may be used for individual experiments. 

Oyster Soup 

Use the same ingredients as for stew, with the addition 
of two tablespoonfuls of flour. Melt the butter, blend 
into it the flour and seasoning, add the oyster liquor, and 
stir until the mixture boils. Add the milk and the oysters, 
and cook until the oysters are done. 

A little onion juice or scraped onion, or a blade or two 
of mace, may be cooked with the soup if the flavor is 
desired. 

Repeat the process, adding the milk to the melted 
butter and flour, cooking as before, and adding the 
oyster liquor after the first mixture has boiled. Compare 




64 



OYSTERS 65 

the results in this case with those obtained in the similar 
process of making oyster stew. 

Note. The above amount will serve four persons. 

Creamed Oysters 

Use the same ingredients as for oyster soup, but double 
the amount of flour. Proceed as in the last recipe, using 
the process which gave the most satisfactory results. 
Celery salt may be added for an extra flavoring. The 
creamed oysters may be served on toast, or in croustades. 

Note. The amount given will be sufficient for eight slices of toast. 

Curry of Oysters 

Add to the amount of flour used in making the creamed 
oysters one-half teaspoonful of curry powder, or more, 
according to taste. Or the curry powder may be stirred 
in the last thing. 

Oysters with Cheese 

Add a couple of tablespoonfuls of grated cheese to the 
creamed oysters. Set in the oven in a baking dish until 
brown on top. 

Oysters a la Poulette 

Substitute for the grated cheese in the last recipe two 
whole eggs, or the yolks of four, well beaten, and stir 
these into the mixture just before it is removed from the 
fire. Additional seasoning should be used to flavor the 
efegs. 

Note. Creamed oysters and their derivatives may be served for va- 
riety in small baking cups, lightly covered wath buttered crumbs, 
browned in the oven, and sprinkled with chopped parsley. 



66 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

Supreme of Oysters 

Substitute chicken or veal stock for the milk in creamed 
oysters, and add just before serving a couple of table- 
spoonfuls of chopped mushrooms, a chopped, hard-boiled 
egg, and a tablespoonful or two of lemon juice. In addi- 
tion to these a tablespoonful of scraped onion, or chopped 
carrot, or a mixture of the two, will add to the novelty 
and deliciousness of the flavor. Serve in a casserole, or 
in individual ramekins, garnished with buttered crumbs 
and parsley. 

Further Experiments with Oysters 

1. Take two large, plump, " floated " oysters. Cook 
one in distilled water, the other in a strong salt solution, 
until the gills separate and become frilled. 

2. Take two oysters and use any preferred medium 
for cooking. Cook one until properly done, cook the 
other for five minutes longer. Compare the two. 

3. Take four freshly opened oysters. Bruise the soft 
part of one, and set it away in a moderately warm place 
for from one-half to one hour. Cook the second until 
done, then bruise and set away as before. Place the 
third, without bruising, in a moderately warm place with 
the other two. Do not allow the oysters to touch one 
another. Set the third in the refrigerator. Compare the 
flavor, etc., of the four. 

Note. If you should not be able to make a satisfactory Inference 
from the first experiment, or from your cooking of oysters, the follow- 
ing experiment may be performed. 

Half fill a gold-beater's bag with a strong salt solution, 
and suspend it in a vessel of pure water for one or two 




67 



02 

a: 



>^ 
O 

o 

CZi 



68 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

hours. Measure the volume of water in the bag before 
and after suspension. The water in the vessel, and the 
solution in the bag, should be tested for chlorides be- 
fore and after the experiment. The membrane lining 
an egg-shell may be used instead of the gold-beater's 
bag. 

TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1. The cultivation of oysters, and the location of the 
largest oyster beds in the country. 

2. The best age for the marketing of oysters; how the 
age of this fish can be told from an examination of the 
shell. 

3. Varieties of oysters in this and other countries. 

4. The ''soaking" or ''floating" of oysters. The 
effect of this process on the healthfulness, the nutritive 
value, the keeping qualities, etc., of the oyster. 

5. Approved methods for the shipment of oysters. 

6. Harmful preservatives and other adulterations. 

7. Other shellfish and crustacese used as food. 

8. The cost of oysters as compared with their nutritive 
value. 

9. The 100-calorie portion. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Compare the effect of water, heat, and acid on eggs, 
fish, and oysters. 

2. Compare raw and cooked oysters as to flavor, 
digestibility, and wholesomeness. 

3. What form of carbohydrate should you expect to 
find in oysters? In what part of the oyster is it 
found? 

4. What is the economic value of floated oysters 
compared with that of unfloated? What evidence 
have you that the oysters used today were either floated 
or unfloated? 

5. When may salt be used in a recipe for cooking 
oysters? When may it be omitted? 



QUESTIONS 69 

6. Account for the expression, ''An oyster digests 
itself." What is the least digestible part of the oyster? 

7. Compare as to nutritive value ten cents' worth 
of the following foods: oysters, milk, round steak, eggs. 
(See charts.) 

8. Arrange in tabular form the cost, protein content, 
and calorific value of a pint of milk and a pint of oysters. 
(See charts.) Why do we pay so much more for one 
food than for the other? What justification is there for 
the excess in price? What relation can you trace between 
the comparative cost of the two foods and the recipes 
chosen for today's lesson? 

9. What new principles in the preparation of food have 
you gained from the work with oysters? 

10. Trace the relation between the experiments and 
the cooking of the various dishes made. 

EXERCISES 

1. Make panned oysters with lemon butter. 

2. Saute bacon and oysters together. 

3. Make "Huitres au Lit," or "Pigs in Blankets." 

4. Using the 100-calorie portion, combine oysters with 
one or more foods already studied so as to furnish a 
1000-calorie meal for from seven to ten cents. 

5. Proceed as in 4, balancing the meal according to 
the standard nutrient ratio. 

References 

Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XIX. 

Church. Foods, Part III. 

Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chap. V. 

Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chap. XVII. 

Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. VIII. 

Thompson. Practical Dietetics, Oysters. 

Wiley. Foods and Food Adulterants, Part III. 

Farmers' Bulletin 85, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



CHAPTER IX 
MEATS 

To the Student. The cooking of meat is a difficult 
subject to present in class, first, because in order to gain 
efficiency each student should use quite large joints; 
second, because in order to gain experience much 
practice is necessary. In these lessons, therefore, as 
much of this practical work as possible will be given, 
and this should be supplemented by home work in the 
cooking of different cuts and the use of different 
methods. Meat is such a costly food that the wasteful- 
ness involved in improper methods of cooking should 
not be tolerated. 

You will perhaps question why no instructions are 
given regarding the seasoning of the steaks. This was 
omitted for two reasons: first, because the work assigned 
in class is largely experimental, usually designed to illus- 
trate some principle, such as how best to cook meat 
evenly, to render tough meat tender, to develop flavor, 
etc. In testing the meat for the last you will be able to 
arrive at a correct conclusion much more easily if the 
meat is not seasoned before it is tasted. The second 
reason is that seasoning is so largely a matter of individual 
taste that scope for this individuality may well be afforded 
you now. Hence specified amounts of seasoning will 
seldom be given in the formal recipes printed in this text 
for the future. 

70 



MEATS 71 

Experiments in the Broiling of Steak 
Tender Steak 

Method I. Trim off the exposed edges of the steak, 
and remove the superfluous fat. Heat a meat broiler, 
and grease it Hghtly with a piece of fat on a fork. Place 
the steak on the broiler with the skin edge toward the 
handle. (Why?) Hold it over clear, red coals, or under 
gas, and turn the broiler every ten seconds. The meat 
should be held so close to the flame that it will be immedi- 
ately seared and quickly browned on both sides. When 
half the time for cooking has passed, reduce the tempera- 
ture (why?) by holding the broiler farther from the heat, 
and turn it not quite so frequently. Or the steak, if 
thoroughly browned, may be placed on a hot platter in 
the warming oven until the cooking is complete. 

Time for Broiling Steak. See Time Table for Cooking, 
Appendix B. 

Note. The thicker the steak the shorter proportionately should 
be the time allowed at the initial high temperature. 

A properly cooked steak should, when cut, be of a uniform tint 
throughout its entire thickness. 

The cooking of even a well-done steak should never be prolonged 
so far that the steak loses its "puffiness." 

Method 2. Pan-broiling. Heat a clean, smooth pan 
" blue " hot, or so hot that the meat will not stick to it. 
Put on the steak, and keep turning it constantly during 
the first part of the time allowed for cooking. During the 
latter part reduce the temperature by extinguishing the 
gas, putting on the stove lid, or drawing the pan to the 
side of the range and covering it with a plate, so that 
the meat may be cooked by the retained heat. 

Note. In pan-broiling, about one-third more time should be allowed 
than in broiling over the open fire. 



72 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

Method 3. Broil or pan-broil a steak, omitting the 
frequent turning, that is, cooking it for half the time on 
one side and for half on the other. 

Method 4. Broil or pan-broil a steak without reducing 
the temperature during the latter part of the cooking. 

Carefully compare the four steaks as to juiciness, degree 
of cooking (whether more or less well done), whether or 
not evenly cooked throughout, etc. 

Tough Steak 

Method I. Broil or pan-broil as in Tender Steak. 

Method 2. First freeze the meat until quite stiff. 
This can be done by placing the meat in a shallow, closely 
covered kettle, applying a layer of butter or lard round 
the joining of the lid (to make it water-tight), and packing 
the kettle in a mixture of equal parts of ice and salt 
(coarse) for an hour. On removing the meat allow it to 
thaw out; then broil or pan-broil as before. 

Method 3. Marinate a tough steak by immersing it 
in a mixture of one part of oil to three parts of vinegar 
(see page 117). The steak should remain in the marinade 
for several hours, or overnight. Broil or pan-broil as 
before. 

Method 4. Pound a tough steak with a wooden pestle 
or mallet. Broil as before. 

Compare, fully and carefully, the four steaks. 

Hamburg Steak 

Put a piece of tough steak through the food chopper, 
add seasoning, and if desired, chopped onion or onion 
juice. Form into cakes an inch or an inch and a half 
thick, and pan-broil as in Method 2, for tender steak. 



MEATS 73 

Salisbury Steak 

Scrape the pulp from raw meat with the edge of a knife, 
discarding the fiber. Season as for Hamburg Steak, form 
into cakes, and pan-broil in the same manner. 

Which was the better done after cooking for the same 
length of time, the Hamburg steak or the Salisbury? 
Did the Hamburg steak take a longer or a shorter time 
to cook than an ordinary steak of the same thickness? 

ACCOMPANIMENTS TO STEAK 

Maitre d'Hotel Butter. Cream the butter, and add to 
it one-fourth its volume of lemon juice and the same ' 
amount of finely chopped parsley. Form into balls, and 
place on the hot steak just before serving. 

To Chop Parsley. Twist a sprig of parsley into a tight 
little ball, hold this firmly on the table between the 
fingers of the left hand, and shave it with a sharp knife, 
as finely as possible. 

Horseradish Sauce. Mix equal parts of grated horse- 
radish and fine bread crumbs. Season the mixture 
slightly with salt and pepper, moisten it with cream, and 
heat it through on a hot pan. If heated on the pan used 
for cooking the steak the flavor will be improved, though 
the sauce will not look so white as if heated in an agate 
or enameled saucepan. 

Broiled Bananas. Peel the bananas, and cut them into 
quarters, cutting first across, then lengthwise. Broil in 
an oyster broiler, or saute in butter until soft. 

A spoonful of the horseradish sauce on a SaUsbury 
steak, with a broiled banana on the top, makes a deUcious 
combination. 



74 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

Rolled Skirt Steak 

Trim a skirt steak, spread it with a well-seasoned 
stuffing, roll up like a jelly-roll, and skewer. Lay one or 
two thin slices of fat pork on the top, place on the rack 
of a baking pan, and bake, without the addition of any 
water for basting, for 45 m. 

Prepare a second skirt steak similarly to the first, 
steam it for 25 m., then bake for 20 m., or until the 
whole time of cooking shall have occupied 45 m. 

Compare the two steaks. Is there any difference in the 
flavor? in the consistency? Which is the more evenly 
cooked throughout? 

Stuffing for Skirt Steak 
Ingredients. 

2 cups bread crumbs. M to 1 tablespoonful chopped onion 

3>^ to J^ cup butter. or onion juice. 

1 egg, well beaten. Seasoning of salt, pepper, chopped 

parsley, thyme, etc. 

Method. Moisten the bread crumbs with the beaten 
egg and the melted butter — if the bread is very dry it 
may need to be squeezed out of hot water before adding 
the butter; in this case the butter need not be melted. 
The seasoning may be added last, and the whole thing 
well mixed. 

This recipe can be used for a fish stuffing by adding 
chopped pickles or capers, or a mixture of the two. It can 
be used for fowl with or without the addition of oysters 
— one cupful or more. 



MEATS 75 

Experiments to Aid or Confirm Inferences 



1. Examine a long section, and if possible a cross- 
section of meat under the microscope, noting the struc- 
ture of voluntary muscle. 

2. Test meat with litmus paper for acidity or alkalin- 
ity. Use dry litmus paper, neutral, and highly glazed. 
Apply it to the meat for a short time, then wash off the 
paper in distilled water and observe the color of the stain. 

3. Scrape 8-10 grams of the pulp from a piece of lean 
meat with the edge of a knife, place it in a beaker, and 
mix it well with about 50 cc. of distilled water. Note 
which substances in meat are soluble and which are 
insoluble. 

4. Place a portion of the clear, fibrous substance left 
from 3 in an evaporating dish, and add concentrated 
hj^drochloric acid to cover. Allow to stand for 30 m. 
Note any changes that have taken place in appearance, 
in texture. 

5. Strain the liquid from 3 through cheesecloth, and 
squeeze the pulp as dry as possible. Taste both the pulp 
and the liquid. Has either one a flavor of meat? 

6. Heat the liquid very slowly in a beaker, without 
stirring, until no further change takes place. Do you 
find that some of the portion soluble in water is 
coagulated by heat? What other changes were brought 
about by heating? Filter or decant the liquid. Does it 
still hold something in solution? Boil the liquid until it 
is reduced to one-half its volume, or less. Taste the 
residue on the filter paper. Taste the liquid after boiling 
down. Has either one a flavor of meat? 

7. Wash thoroughly the pulp from 5, then heat it and 



76 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

taste it. Has it a flavor of meat? Is there any change 
in the flavor after heating? 

8. Heat very quickly and at a high temperature a 
cubic inch of lean meat until it puffs up a little. Then 
express the juice from it by means of a meat press, and 
divide this liquid into two parts. Add acid to one part, 
apply heat to the other. Compare the result of each. 
What substance already dealt with reacted similarly to 
heat and acid? 

9. Test the various substances isolated for protein, 
using both the xanthoproteic test and Millon's reagent. 

10. Shake up together in a test tube a little scraped 
lean meat with twice its volume of ether. Let it stand 
for a moment to settle, then decant the liquid on to a 
piece of filter paper. Does lean meat contain some fat? 

TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1. The names and location of the various steaks in 
the beef animal. 

2. How to choose good beef. Sources of the best beef. 

3. Effects of the ''hanging" of meat. Rigor inortis. 

4. The effect of feeding, care, etc., on the flavor of 
meat. 

5. The physical structure of meat. 

6. The nutrients and non-nutrients contained in 
meat. The characteristics of the protein of meat. 

7. Various animals used for food. Cost of production 
of beef. Imports and exports of meat. Cause of in- 
creased cost of meat. 

8. Appropriate accompaniments to beef — vegetables, 
sauces, desserts, beverages. 

9. Vegetarianism vs. mixed diet from the standpoint 
of economy. 

10. How the protein content of foods is estimated; 
discussion of various methods. 

11. Dangers of excessive meat eating. Results, in 



QUESTIONS 77 

different physical conditions, of a total exclusion of meat 
from the diet. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Compare the structure of meat with that of an 
orange. In what points are they alike? in what points 
do they differ? 

2. Why are steaks cut across the direction of the 
muscle fibers? What steaks are not so cut? Describe 
these, and suggest ways to serve them. 

3. So far as you are able, name and describe the differ- 
ent substances you have found in meat. In which of 
these does the flavor of meat reside? 

4. Which of the constituents of meat is most affected 
by acid? by water? by heat? In each case, what is the 
reaction? 

5. Account for the ''puffiness" observed during the 
cooking of steak. Account for the effects of freezing. 

6. Discuss the causes of toughness in meat. From what 
parts of the animal should you expect the tenderest cuts? 

7. Compare the probable effect on meat of (1) violent 
exercise, or hunting, of the animal before slaughtering; 
(2) prolonged hanging of the meat before its sale; (3) 
the application of a marinade by the housekeeper before 
cooking. (See Chapter XIII, page 117.) 

8. Trace the relation between the experiments in analy- 
sis of meat and the cooking of meat in today's lesson. 

9. What new principles in the preparation of food have 
you gained from the work of this lesson? 

10. What agents have you recognized so far as serv- 
ing for non-conductors of heat in the preparation of 
food? 

11. What are the possible errors in the estimation of 
protein by factor? In what foods is this method most 
likely to be erroneous? 

12. Account for the fact that the protein content of 
veal is greater than the protein content of beef. (See 
charts.) 



78 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

EXERCISES 

1. Make a diagram of the beef animal, indicating the 
different cuts by numbers. Make a key to this diagram, 
giving the names of the cuts, their cost at retail, and the 
various purposes for which they may be used. 

2. Make drawings of the different steaks from both the 
hind quarter and the fore quarter. Name the location, 
the average weight, and the cost per pound of each steak. 

References 

Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chaps. Ill and XVI, 
and pp. 349, /. 

Crichton-Browne. Parsimony in Nutrition. 

Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chaps. IV and X. 

Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chap. III. 

Kellogg. Shall We Slay to Eat? 

Parloa. Home Economics, Chap. IX. 

Sherman. Chemistry of Foods and Nutrition, Chap. I. 

Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. VIII. 

Thompson. Practical Dietetics, Meat. 

Wiley. Foods and Food Adulterants, Part I. 

Woods-Hutchinson. Instinct and Health, Chaps. II and III. 

Bulletin 141, Losses in Cooking Meat, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture; 
Farmers' Bulletin 34, Meats: Composition and Cooking; also Bulle- 
tins 102, 162, 193, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Office of Experiment 
Stations. 



CHAPTER X 
MEATS — continued 

To the Student. All of the cooking processes described 
in this chapter can be completed, for the weight of meat 
assigned in each case, during the ordinary double period 
devoted to the laboratory work of this course. Different 
groups of students can be formed for the preparation of 
each joint, etc., but each group should observe not only 
the work of its own, but that of every other group in the 
class. 

The vegetable dishes given may be used as accompani- 
ments to the meats, and can be prepared in " chinks " 
of time while the meats are in process of cooking. 

Attention should be paid to the serving, garnishing, 
and carving of the meats. 

The meat used must in every case be weighed both 
before and after cooking. 

Standing Rib Roast 

Select a cut from the first two ribs, the weight not to 
exceed four pounds. The roast should be prepared by 
sawing off two or three inches from the thin ends of the 
rib Bones, and the saw should be slanted well in under 
the meat to avoid unsightly exposure of the bone from 
shrinkage of the meat during cooking. 

Place the meat on the rack in a roasting pan, and 
dredge it lightly with flour, seasoned with salt and pepper. 
Set it into a very hot oven for 10-15 m., to sear the 

79 



80 



PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 



surface. Then baste well with hot water, mingled with 
the fat in the pan; (if the beef is lean some dripping 
or suet should be added to the pan to make fat for the 
basting). The basting should be repeated every 10 or 
15m., until the joint is cooked. While there should be a 




STANDING RIB ROAST — AS PURCHASED 

sufficiency of liquid for basting, there should not be so 
much as to generate an excess of steam, since this would 
prevent the browning of the meat, as well as hinder the 
development of flavor. (Why?) When the joint is cooked 
(see time table, Appendix B), pull out the small pieces 
of bone from the thick end of the roast (if the meat is 
done these can be removed easily) , place it on a " hot 
platter, garnish, and set before the carver with the thick 
end to the left. 

Note. The meat from the cut-off ends of the ribs can be used 
with the "left-overs" in making croquettes, shepherd's pie, or any of 
the various forms of re-serving. Or they can be cooked as "short- 
ribs" if desired. But the joint looks sightlier, and is easier to carve, 
when the unnecessary length of rib bone is removed. 



MEATS 



81 




STANDING RIB ROAST, COOKED AND READY TO SERVE 



Braised Beef 

A piece from the bottom round, weighing about two 
pounds, may be used for the class work. If very lean, 
fat will have to be added by one of the approved methods. 
(See Methods of Applying Fat to IVIeat.) 

Sear the whole surface of the meat in a very hot pan 
until it is well browned. Place it on the rack in a braising 
pan, pour in hot water just to reach to the rack, and 
cook in a slow oven for from one-half to one hour to every 
pound, keeping the pan closely covered. 

Onion, carrot, turnip, celery, cut in dice, one cupful or 
more of each, according to the amount of meat to be 
braised, may be piled around the joint in the pan, and 
afterwards served with it. Seasoning and herbs may 
also be added. When the meat is cooked the liquid should 
be strained, thickened with flour (see To Thicken and 
Season Stew, page 90), and served as a sauce. The vege- 
tables may be arranged around the meat on the platter. 



82 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

Vegetables are not essential to the braising process, but 
will give added flavor to the meat. When they are used 
this dish is sometimes called '' braised meat a la jardiniere," 
or " a la printaniere." 

Pot Roast 

This method of cooking meat is similar to braising, and 
is employed in the absence of a regular braising pan. 
The meat, previously seared, is placed on a bed of vege- 
tables in an ordinary kettle; a very little water is added 
— just enough to keep the vegetables from burning — 
and the whole is cooked, closely covered, on the top of the 
stove. 

Note. Since the braised meat is cooked by a combination of roast- 
ing and steaming it is not necessary to baste it, and the braising pan 
should remain covered during the whole time of cooking. The slower 
the cooking process is the tenderer and better flavored will be the 
meat. The class exercise in braising has to be completed in too short 
a time to give the best results. 

Methods of Applying Fat to Meat 

Meat which is dry and lean, especially if subjected to 
prolonged cooking, is much improved by the addition 
of pork fat. This may be added in three different ways. 

1. Barding. This is the simplest method, and it con- 
sists in placing thin slices of pork fat on the upper sur- 
face of the meat. They may or may not be fastened with 
skewers. The fat in melting serves to baste the meat, 
will prevent evaporation of the juices, and will enrich the 
flavor. 

2. Daubing. Strips of pork fat about a half-inch thick 
are pushed into the meat through cuts made here and 
there with a sharp, thin-bladed knife. The strips of pork, 



MEATS 83 

which are called lardoons, should extend through the en- 
tire thickness of the meat. 

3. Larding. Long, slender strips of pork fat, about 
one-quarter of an inch thick, are drawn through the sur- 
face of the meat by inserting one end of the strip into the 
end of a larding needle, and then, with the point of the 
needle, taking a stitch through the surface of the meat. 
The stitch should be about an inch long, and almost a 
half-inch deep, and the lardoon should project on both 
sides. Regular rows of these stitches should be made all 
over the surface to be larded, and the ends of the lardoons 
should be cut an equal length. 

Pork fat for larding or daubing should be cut as close 
to the rind as possible, and lengthwise with the rind, 
since the fat here is firmer, and will not be so apt to break. 

Either fresh or salt-pork fat may be used, and for the 
class exercise both kinds should be tried, and the result 
compared and accounted for — since the salt-pork fat 
has an interesting effect on the muscular tissue of the 
meat where it comes in contact with it. 

Beef a la Mode 

This resembles Pot Roast, except that more water is 
used in the cooking, the water being allowed to reach 
to half the height of the meat in the pot. The searing, in 
beef a la mode, may be done simply by pouring boil- 
ing water over the surface of the meat. The round of 
beef is generally used, and it is liberally daubed with fat. 

Veal Birds 

Take cutlets of veal from the upper part of the leg, 
cut half an inch thick. Pound these with a wooden mallet 



84 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

until reduced one-half in thickness. Cut the meat into 
strips about four inches long and two wide, spread each 
strip with stuffing (see Chapter IX, page 74) to which has 
been added the trimmings of the veal, finely chopped, 
with a little ham or bacon. Roll each strip up like a jelly- 
roll, fasten with wooden toothpicks, and bake, or cook in 
a hot, slightly greased pan. 

VEGETABLE DISHES 

Deviled Tomatoes 

Cut fresh tomatoes into thick slices, dredge them with 
flour, salt, and pepper, and cook in hot butter on a pan 
until thoroughly heated. Serve on a hot dish with One 
tablespoonful of the following mixture on each slice. 

1 tablespoonful butter. Yolk of one hard-boiled egg. 

1 teaspoonful powdered sugar. Salt, and a dash of paprika, or 

2 teaspoonfuls dry mustard. a few grains cayenne. 

Mix the above ingredients to a cream, then add: 

2 tablespoonfuls chopped green pepper. 
2 tablespoonfuls scraped onion. 
2 tablespoonfuls finely shaved parsley. 
Vinegar to moisten. 

Slightly warm the whole in a pan, then place on the 
sliced tomatoes. 

Mushrooms and Tomatoes 

Sift canned tomatoes, and make into a sauce (see page 
16). Add half the volume of chopped mushrooms, and 
cook until hot. Add fine, sifted crumbs until the mixture 
is of the consistency of a thick paste. 



VEGETABLE DISHES 85 

Tomato Curry 

Cook one tablespoonful of scraped onion in two table- 
spoonfuls of butter until it turns yellow. Add one sour 
apple, chopped, and cook until apple is soft. Add two 
cups of sifted tomato, one to two teaspoonfuls of curry 
powder, and seasoning of salt and pepper. Allow the 
mixture to boil, then add one cup of boiled rice, cook five 
minutes longer, and serve. 

Mississippi Steamboat Potatoes 

Pare raw potatoes, and cut into one-inch cubes. Boil 
in strongly salted water until j.ust soft enough to pierce. 
For one pint of potato cubes use: ' 

2 tablespoonfuls butter. 1 egg, well beaten. 

1 tablespoonful scraped onion. Seasoning of salt and pepper. 

1 tablespoonful vinegar, tarragon if convenient. 

Cook the onion in the butter until yellow. Add the 
potato cubes and toss them lightly with a fork until well 
coated with butter. Add the vinegar and seasoning. 
Add the beaten egg, and cook for a moment until the egg 
is set. The heat of the potatoes may be sufficient to do 
this. Serve at once, sprinkling over the dish a Uttle very 
finely chopped parsley. 

This dish, to be perfect, should have the potato cubes 
retain their shape after cooking, and each cube should 
be covered with a creamy coating of the egg. 

Hot Slaw 

Prepare one pint of very finely shredded cabbage. 
Make the following dressing: 

2 tablespoonfuls butter. }/i teaspoonful dry mustard. 

2 tablespoonfuls flour. Salt, a speck cayenne, or a little 

2 teaspoonfuls sugar, paprika. 

^ cup cream. 



86 



PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 



Cook as for white sauce. Add slowly one-quarter cup 
of vinegar, stirring constantly. When the mixture boils, 
stir in rapidly one well-beaten egg, and when the egg 
thickens add the shredded cabbage, incorporate this well 
with the dressing, and serve immediately. 

Note. "Slaw" means a salad, usually of shredded leaves, such 
as cabbage or lettuce leaves. " Cole slaw " means simply a cabbage 
slaw, or a cabbage salad, the word "cole" being equivalent to "cale" 
or "kale." "Cold Slaw" is the term usually applied to a cabbage salad 
that is served with a cold dressing — but there is really a hot cole slaw 
as well as a cold cole slaw. 




GREEN PEPPERS, FARCI 



Green Peppers, Farci 

Cut the tops from green peppers, scoop out the inside, 
and boil for five minutes. Fill cavities with a spoonful 
of the following mixture. 



Yi cupful each cold cooked veal 

and cold ham, both minced. 
\^ cup bread crumbs. 
^ cup of cream. 



1 tablespoonful butter. 
Seasoning salt, onion 
minced parsley. 



juice, 



Set the pepper cups in the oven and bake for half an 
hour, basting with water and butter, one tablespoonful 
of butter to one cup of water, 



QUESTIONS 87 

TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1. The names and location of the prime roasting pieces 
in the beef animal, of the fancy cuts, e. g., the fillet. The 
names and location of pieces suitable for braising, for 
corning, etc. 

2. Methods of preserving meat, smoking, drying, corn- 
ing, canning, cold storage, etc. Ptomaines and bacilli in 
meat. Meat inspection and other food laws concerning 
meat. 

3. Nomenclature of proteins according to the classifi- 
cation by the committee on nomenclature representing 
the Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment 
Stations. 

4. Nomenclature of proteins according to the recom- 
mendations of the joint committee of ttie American 
Physiological Society and the American Society of Bio- 
logical Chemists. 

5. By-products of the digestion of proteids. 

6. Nucleo-protein vs. nucleo-albumin. 

7. Vegetarianism vs. mixed diet from the physiological 
standpoint. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Account for the loss of weight in cooking meat. 
In which kind of meat, tough or tender, was the loss the 
greater? Why? 

2. Why do we cook tender meat? Why do we cook 
tough meat? 

3. Why is meat dredged with flour before roasting? 
Has any similar process been performed by you in a 
previous lesson? 

4. Which needs the hotter oven and the more frequent 
basting, a small joint or a large one? Why? 

5. Account for the red color of corned beef, for the 
red color of the daubed or larded meat where it came in 
contact with the salt-pork fat. 

6. Compare the corning of beef with the floating of 
oysters. 



88 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

7. Why should meat always be carved across the grain? 

8. Compare the difference, with regard to time and 
temperature, in the cooking of tough and tender meats. 

9. What principle is involved in the common practice 
of applying vinegar, salt, or soda to meat which has 
become slightly tainted on the surface? 

10. In bacon and pork, meats with a small water content, 
what other food principle is in inverse proportion? In 
what other instances does such a proportion hold good? 
(See charts.) 

EXERCISES 

1. Utilize the left-over meat in some acceptable modes 
of reserving. 

2. Make a^ diagram of the pork animal. Proceed as 
in the diagram of the beef animal. 

3. Make drawings of the first, second, and third cut 
of the ribs; of the chuck ribs; of the porterhouse cuts; 
of the top and bottom round. 

References 

See references for Chapter IX, with the addition of the following: 
Jordan. Principles of Human Nutrition, Chaps. Ill and XIII. 
Parloa. Kitchen Companion, Larding, etc. 

Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Chap. I from p. 23 on 
and Chap. IV. 



CHAPTER XI 
MEATS — continued 

To the Student. The cooking of meat by means of 
boiling, or the use of water as a medium for conveying heat, 
will be studied in this chapter. Meat stews in particular 
will be the object of a series of experiments. It takes at 
least three hours to make a good stew from uncooked 
meat; hence, if possible, the student should start the work 
at least an hour before the opening of the class period. 
Small individual stews of not more than from two to four 
ounces of meat may be made, and the results compared. 
Both veal and beef will be used in equal parts in making 
the stews, preferably from the shin or shank of beef and 
the leg of veal. If pieces of the bone are also used this 
will improve the flavor. 

Before beginning the work in stews and soups, a joint 
of meat may be cooked whole, by boiling. 

Boiled Leg of Lamb 

Choose a small leg, weighing about six pounds. Wipe, 
and put on to cook in boiling salted water, just sufficient 
in amount barely to cover the meat. Allow to boil for 
ten minutes, then simmer (180-185° F.) until cooked. 
(See time table, Appendix B, page 235.) 

Remember to weigh the meat before and after cooking. 

89 



90 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

Caper Sauce 

Proceed as for White Sauce (see Chapter II, page 9). 
When sauce is cooked, add a generous tablespoonful of 
capers to every cup of sauce. A portion of the water in 
which the lamb was cooked may be substituted for milk 
in making this sauce. 

STEWS 
Plain Meat Stew with Dumplings 

Cut the meat into half-ounce pieces, put on in cold 
water, allow it to come rapidly to a boil, then reduce the 
temperature and simmer for two hours. Add vegetables, 
potatoes, turnips, cut in pieces as large as the meat, 
carrots in quarter-inch slices, onions sliced or finely 
minced, and bring the whole again to a boil. After 
this allow the stew to simmer for thirty minutes, then 
add the seasoning and thickening, and allow to boil for a 
minute or two. Lastly place the dumplings on the top 
of the meat and vegetables, and cook the stew, closely 
covered, for ten minutes longer. 

Stew can be served in a large, deep platter, with a 
border of small dumplings, and garnished with cress. Or 
a piled-up border of well-done, dry, flaky rice may be 
effectively used, or a border of well-seasoned mashed 
potato. If potato is used the platter may be set for a 
moment in the broiling oven of a gas range to brown the . 
border. 

To Thicken and Season Stew. Allow two tablespoon- 
fuls of flour for every pint of water used in making the 
stew. Add to this one-half teaspoon of salt and one-fourth 
to one-half teaspoon of pepper. "Blend all with cold water 
to a thin paste, stir into this paste an equal volume of 




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92 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

the hot hquid from the stew, then pour the mixture into 
the stew pot, and stir until it boils. 

Dumplings 

Ingredients. Flour, water, shortening, baking powder, 
salt. 

Proportions. Three times as much flour as water. 
One-eighth as much shortening as flour, or less. One- 
quarter teaspoonful of salt to each cup of flour. Two 
teaspoonfuls of baking powder (where a cream of tartar 
baking powder is used) to one cup of flour. 

Method. Mix dry ingredients. Chop the shortening 
into the dry mixture, using the back of a fork. Stir in 
the liquid to the dry things, and mix very lightly to a soft 
dough. This should be spongy and full of holes. 

Note. One-quarter cup of flour will make two or three small 
dumplings. 

Dumplings are less apt to be soggy if they are cooked separately 
from the stew on a greased plate in a steamer. 

Brown Stew 

About one-half of the meat should be well browned on 
a hot pan before making the stew. The same process as 
for the plain meat stew is then followed. 

Variations on Methods. Using the same ingredients as 
before, make both kinds of stew by putting the meat 
directly into boiling water, and then reducing the tem- 
perature as already directed. 

Make a stew, using meat alone, allowing it to boil hard 
during the whole time of cooking. The water lost by 
evaporation must be replaced from time to time. 

Make stews, using meat alone, in soft (distilled) water 
and in hard water, proceeding as for plain meat stew. 

Compare flavor and consistency in each case. 



MEATS 93 

Frame, as a result of your work, some general rules for 
the making of stew. 

OTHER VARIETIES OF STEW 

Brunswick Stew. A brown stew containing pieces of 
chicken as well as one or two other kinds of meat. 

Chowder. A stew of fish or shellfish. 

Fricassee. A stew of meat that has been browned 
either before or after making the stew. 

Haggis. A stew made of sheep's hazlet, thickened 
with oatmeal, flavored highly with onion, and cooked in a 
bag, usually the stomach of the sheep. 

Haricot. A stew of any kind of meat, cut into pieces 
the size of a haricot bean. 

Irish Stew. A stew made of minced mutton and po- 
tatoes, flavored with onion and seasoned very highly, 
cooked down to about the consistency of hash. 

Kolcannon. A stew of cabbage and potatoes, with the 
addition of a small amount of fat salt pork and a gener- 
ous amount of seasoning. 

Ragout. A stew to which wine or vinegar has been 
added in the process of cooking. 

Salmi. A stew of game. 

To Boil Corned Beef 

Put the corned beef on in cold water, let it come slowly 
to a boil, and then simmer (180° F.) for half an hour to 
every pound. If the meat is to be used cold it will be 
juicier and tenderer if it is allowed to cool in the water in 
which it was cooked. Home corned beef, or meat not 
quite so strongly salted as is that usually purchased from 
the butcher, may be put on in boiling water, have the 



94 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

temperature then reduced, and simmered as before until 
cooked. 

MAKING AND CLEARING SOUP STOCK 

The term " soup stock " is defined by one of the stand- 
ard dictionaries as " the Hquor or broth prepared bj^ 
boiling meat with or without vegetables, etc., so as to 
extract the nutritious properties, and used as a foundation 
for different kinds of soup." 

Soup Stock 

Ingredients. ^leat, one or more kinds, with bone. 
Vegetables, such as onion, carrot, turnip, celery. Herbs, 
marjoram, thyme, savory, etc. Seasoning of allspice, 
cloves, whole pepper, bay leaf, etc. One sour apple, or 
an ounce of chopped ham to every two quarts of stock, 
helps to give a good flavor. 

Proportions. For a light stock, one quart of water to 
each pound of meat. For a rich stock, one pint of water 
to one pound of meat. About one-fourth as much bone 
as meat, by weight. One-half to one cup of each vege- 
table, cut in cubes, to every two quarts of stock. One- 
half to one teaspoonful of each herb (dried), one-half to 
one teaspoonful of the spices, mixed, and one bay leaf 
to ever}^ tAvo quarts of stock. 

Method. Wipe the meat and cut it into small pieces. 
Place it in the required quantity of cold water, and let it 
stand for half an hour. Then apply gentle heat, and allow 
it to come very slowly to a boil. It should take at least 
an hour for a stock pot containing six quarts of water to 
reach the boiling point. The vegetables may then be 
added, together with the herbs and seasoning. These last 



MEATS 95 

should be tied loosely in cheesecloth, and the whole 
allowed to simmer for six hours. The stock should then 
be strained and cooled. 

TO CLEAR SOUP STOCK 

Method I. To Clear Stock with White of Egg. Re- 
move the fat from the cold stock by skimming it care- 
fully. If the stock is jelhed, the surface of it should be 
wiped after skimming off the fat with a soft cloth wrung 
out of boiling water, so as to remove every particle of 
grease. Allow the white of one egg, shghtly beaten, to 
every quart of stock. The crushed shell of the egg, for 
the sake of the albumin that clings to it, may also be 
added. The egg is mixed well with the cold stock, and 
the whole is heated slowly, with occasional stirring, to 
incorporate the egg, until the albumin begins to coagu- 
late. It may then be allowed to boil for five minutes, and 
to stand, after removing from fire, for about ten minutes, 
so as to allow the egg to rise to the surface. It may then 
be strained through a piece of double damask, or through 
several thicknesses of cheesecloth, placed over a fine 
strainer. The stock is then ready for use. 

Method 2. To Clear Stock with Chopped Beef . Finely 
chopped lean meat, one-fourth to one-half pound to each 
quart of stock, is used similarly to the white of egg. This 
method adds to the flavor of the stock, and the residue 
of meat, left after the stock is strained, may be used in 
hash, croquettes, or some other form of rechauffe. 

Method 3. To Clear Stock by Skimming. In this 
method constant watchfulness and care must be employed 
during the time the stock is coming to a boil, and the 
scum that rises to the surface must be skimmed off as it 
rises. Even with very great care, some of this scum will 



96 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

be broken into brown flakes through the stock, and these 
will have to be removed in the end by repeated strainings 
through Canton flannel. 

DERIVATIVES OF STOCK 

Clear Soup. Stock is seasoned with salt, flavored with 
lemon juice or rind, if this is relished, and served as a 
soup. Such a clear soup is often called consomme, or 
bouillon. 

Bouillon. This term is apphed more strictly to a clear 
soup made from a stock in which beef alone was used in 
the making. 

Consomme. In its most restricted meaning this term 
is applied to a stock of '' consummate " richness, made 
from beef, veal, and fowl, in which ordinary stock, or 
bouillon, is substituted for water in the making. 

Court Bouillon. This is a stock made from highly 
flavored vegetables, which may be cooked in a mixture 
of three parts of water to one of vinegar. About a pound 
of the vegetables is allowed to every quart of the liquid. 
The stock is highly seasoned — salt, peppercorns, cloves, 
and any desired spices being used. Fish is sometimes 
boiled in a court bouillon in order to enhance the flavor. 
It may be used several times as a medium for the cook- 
ing of fish, improves with use, and does not readily spoil. 

Glaze. This is a stock which has been boiled down to 
one-fourth of its volume. It is used to color and flavor 
gravies, to brush over the outside of meats to improve 
their appearance, etc. 



MEATS 97 

Experiments to Aid or Confirm Inferences 

I 
Solubility of the Globulin of Meat 

1. Digest a portion of finely minced or chopped raw 
meat in ordinary faucet water. Filter, and add filtrate, 
drop by drop, to a beaker of pure water. 

2. Proceed as in 1, using a 10 per cent salt solution. 

3. Proceed as in 1, using a saturated salt solution. 

4. Where insoluble particles have been formed on 
dropping the filtrate from the meat into distilled water, 
test this substance for protein. This protein belongs 
to a class called globulins. What are some of their 
characteristics? 

II 

Preparation of Kreatin 

1. Mince finely some lean beef, and steep it in water 
until all the soluble matter has been dissolved out. 

2. Decant or filter the liquid, and heat it to boiling. 
Filter again after scum has formed. 

3. Cautiously add a saturated solution of lead acetate, 
drop by drop, to the filtrate from 2, until there is no longer 
any precipitation. If any precipitation has taken place 
it should be removed by filtration. 

4. Pass sulphuretted hydrogen through the liquid 
from 3. This will remove excess of the lead. If a slight 
pellicle should form on the surface during this process 
the liquid will have to be refiltered to remove it. 

5. Evaporate the liquid from 4 over a water bath until 
it is of a syrupy consistency. Then set it aside in a cool 



98 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

place until crystals form. These will be crystals of 
kreatin. 

Note. One of the commercial extracts of meat may be used instead 
of chopped beef and steps 1 and 2 omitted. 

TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1 . The names and location of the various cuts of mutton 
and lamb. How these may be used. The fancy joints, 
e.g., the crown of lamb, the saddle of mutton, etc. 

2. Lamb vs. '^ yearling." Ewe vs. wether mutton. 
The best breeds of mutton. How to choose good lamb 
and mutton. 

3. The names and location of the various cuts of veal. 
The feeding of prime veal, and the age at which it is 
used for food. How to choose good veal. 

4. The causes of the toughness of meat. 

5. The sapid extractives of meat and their function. 

6. Vegetables, sauces, and desserts appropriate to 
serve with lamb, mutton, veal, with particular attention 
to vegetables and other foods rich in iron to supply 
the lack of this mineral in veal. 

7. Minerals in food in organic vs. inorganic form. 

8. Vegetarianism vs. mixed diet from the ethical stand- 
point; from the standpoint of experience of the race. 

9. The inspection of meats at the slaughterhouses; 
the food laws relating to meat. 

10. Exports and imports of meat; trade with other 
countries. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What parts of the animals are best to use for stew? 
Discuss the relation between exercise and tenderness. 

2. Discuss the relation between the amount of extrac- 
tives, or flavoring substances, in different kinds and cuts 
of meat and the methods usually employed in cooking 
the same. 

3. Why does meat lose weight in boiling? What cook- 
ing process involves the greatest loss in weight? What is 
the proportionate loss of weight in tough and tender 
cuts? Account for this. 



QUESTIONS 99 

4. In browning a portion of the meat for stew, which 
kind would you select, the tough or the tender portion? 
Why? 

5. What kind of meat would be appropriate for a 
ragout? Could this method of making stew be used 
to abridge the time needed for cooking? 

6. Should a stew be skimmed? Should the stew pot 
be left uncovered? Give your reasons. 

7. Criticise the definition of stock quoted from one of 
the standard dictionaries. 

8. Compare the making of gelatine jelly with the 
making of soup stock. 

9. What principle is involved in the first two methods 
given for clearing soup stock? 

10. When would you add the salt in making .soup stock? 
Why? (See page 97.) 

11. In what processes of food preparation might a loss 
of globulin be expected? 

12. Cite the possible causes for failure in the work of 
clearing soup stock. 

13. Compare the nutritive value of a pint of soup with 
the nutritive value of the left-over meat. 

14. Formulate two general rules for the cooking of meat, 
applicable in every case where flavor is to be developed 
and nutritive value retained. 

15. Enumerate the examples of solubility, under differ- 
ent conditions; of insolubility; of change in flavor in- 
duced by heat — that have been apparent to you in 
your cooking of animal foods. 

16. Why are fewer calories yielded by lamb than by 
mutton? by veal than by beef? by dried beef than by 
corned beef? (See charts. Appendix A.) 

17. Trace the relation between the experiments and 
the practical work of this chapter. 

EXERCISES 

1. Make diagrams of the veal and mutton animals, 
making the key to the diagrams, etc., as in the case of 
the beef animal. 



100 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

2. Make a tabular list, in parallel columns, of the 
substances found, respectively, in (1) raw beef; '(2) broiled 
steak; (3) boiled corned beef; (4) soup stock before 
clearing; (5) soup stock after clearing; (6) meat left 
after making stock. Indicate in each case where any 
substance was lost, in part or wholly, during the process 
of preparation. 

3. A fritadella is a dish made from highly seasoned 
minced meat, mixed with an equal amount of mashed 
potato, and sauted on a hot pan. Or it may be pressed 
into a mold, and steamed or baked. Make a fritadella 
from the meat left over from the stock, using appropriate 
seasoning to make up for the loss of the extractives. 

4. On what principle would you combine gelatine with 
meat? Illustrate by using both in the making of some 
dish. 

5. What constituents of beef are lacking in veal? 
Cook veal in two ways, showing (1) how you may compen- 
sate for the lack ; (2) how you can utilize to the utmost the 
traces of the constituents which are present. 

6. The flavor of meat is developed in proportion to 
the degree of heat employed in cooking it. Show the 
degrees of this development of flavor in three methods 
of cooking meat. 

7. Show, in the making of a palatable dish, that the 
connective tissue of meat can be converted into gelatine. 

References 

See references for Chap. IX, with the addition of the following: 

Leach. Food Inspection and Analysis. 

Parloa. Kitchen Companion, for accompaniments to meats, fancy 
joints, etc. 

Bulletin 18, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Div. of Veg. Phys. and Path. : 
The Physiological Role of the Mineral Nutrients. Bulletin 19, U. S. Dept. 
of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry: The Inspection of Meats 
for Animal Parasites. Bulletin 66, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Office of 
Experiment Stations: the Physiological Effect of Creatin and Creatinin. 



CHAPTER XII 
MILK 




Analysis by M. D. Chambers. 

ANALYSIS OF 1 LB. OF MILK 



1. 1 lb. (1 pint) of milk. 

2. 14 oz. water in 1 lb. milk. 

3. .5 oz. proteid in 1 lb. milk. 

4. .65 oz. fat in 1 lb. milk. 



5. .85 oz. carbohydrates in 1 lb. 

milk. 

6. 1 oz. mineral salts in 1 lb. 

milk. 



To the Student. Milk is said to be a perfect food, be- 
cause it contains all that is necessary to sustain life. 
The young of all mammals live on it, and develop muscle 
and bone, teeth and skin and hair and hoof, and energy 
and intelligence, on this food alone. Human grown-ups, 
in certain physical conditions, are confined to merely 
this food for periods of perhaps months, and have en- 
joyed life and liberty, and pursued happiness — as well 
as their customary avocations — while restricted to this 

diet. 

Milk contains all the food principles — protein, fat, car- 
bohydrate, water, and minerals — in the right proportion 

101 



102 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

to nourish the young. Its bulk, in proportion to its 
nutritive value, makes it less suitable to adults in ordi- 
nary life than it is to children, but its usefulness and 
wholesomeness should insure it a place in every dietary. 

In the study of milk assigned in this chapter you should 
try to discover the characteristics of its chief constituents, 
and if there is time and opportunity, to make a rough 
analysis of this important food, isolating its component 
parts and even making a rough quantitative estimate of 
the proportion of each that is present. 

Rennet Custard, or Junket 

Ingredients. Junket tablets, milk, water, sugar, 
flavoring. 

Proportions. One junket tablet to one quart of milk. 
Water enough to dissolve the tablet, about one table- 
spoonful or less, sugar and flavoring to taste — a half- 
cup of sugar to a quart of milk is a good proportion. 

Method. For class work, or if it should at any time 
be desired to abbreviate the process, a double quantity 
of junket tablets may be used. Hence in this recipe 
half of one tablet can be allowed to one cup of milk. 

Dissolve the tablet in a very little water. Heat the 
milk until just blood-warm, dissolve the sugar in the 
warm milk, then stir in the dissolved junket tablet, add 
the flavoring, stir well, and pour the mixture into the 
dishes in which it is to be served. Let it stand in a warm 
place until it is set — it should be of the consistency of 
jelly — then place it on ice or in the refrigerator until 
chilled. 

Serve with a spoonful of strawberry or other preserve on 
top, and pile whipped cream over this, 



MILK 103 

Make a second junket, using milk which has first been 
boiled and then allowed to cool to blood-warm. 

Make a third junket, using freshly boiling milk. 

Compare results. Does boiling the milk prevent the 
action of the rennet? Is the action of the rennet retarded 
or weakened by boiling the milk? What effect has a 
boihng temperature applied directly to the rennet? 

Note. One-half cupful of milk, or less, may be allowed for each of 
the methods given above. 

Cottage Cheese 

Method I. Proceed as for junket, omitting the sugar 
and flavoring. When the milk is set or jellied, break up 
the clot with a fork, and strain off the liquid through a 
jelly-bag, or a piece of cheesecloth placed over a wire 
strainer. Squeeze the cloth gently to get rid of the 
hquid, season the curd with a little salt, blend it well 
with a spoon, and serve with or without cream. 

Save the liquid, or whey, which was strained off from 
the curd. 

Method 2. Use sour milk; it is best when just nicely 
clabbered. Heat it very slowly and gently until the curd 
has separated. Strain as before, season, and serve. Pre- 
serve the liquid as in Method 1. 

Compare both kinds of cottage cheese as to consistency 
and flavor. Compare the whey resulting from the two 
methods. Preserve the whey for future use. 

Butter 

Beat an ounce of thick cream with a Dover beater in a 
bowl until butter is formed. Separate the butter from 
the buttermilk, wash it thoroughly in cold water, and 



104 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

form it into a little ball. Compare this with the ordinary 
creamery butter. What weight of butter was yielded by 
one ounce of cream? 

Constituents of Butter. Melt the butter just made over 
very gentle heat, and decant the fat. Put the precipitate 
into a test tube, aild shake it up with an equal volume of 
ether, to remove the remaining fat. Examine the residue. 
Does it resemble any substance formed from milk today? 
Test it for protein. 

Boil the decanted butter fat. Is water present? (Froth 
and " sputtering " indicate the presence of water.) 

Constituents of Whey. Boil down the whey from the 
first method of making cottage cheese, or evaporate it over 
a water bath. If flecks of a coagulated substance should 
form during the boiling they must be removed by filtra- 
tion and preserved. When the liquid is nearly all evapo- 
rated set aside the remainder to evaporate at ordinary 
temperature. Hard crystals of impure milk sugar should 
be formed. Taste it, and compare with cane sugar. 

Examine the substance on the filter paper. Test it for 
protein. What kind of protein is soluble in water and 
coagulated by heat? 

Test another portion of the whey for the presence of 
lime salts by adding a solution of ammonium oxalate. A 
white precipitate indicates the presence of lime. 

Note. If no coagulated flakes appear during the evaporation of the 
whey, the second protein in milk may be tested for by heating a portion 
of ordinary milk gently until a scum forms on the surface. 

MILK SOUPS 

Milk soups, called by courtesy cream soups, are usu- 
ally made on the basis of a thin white sauce. This is the 



MILK 105 

same, as to ingredients and method of making, as the 
medium white sauce given in Chapter II, (page 9), except 
that only one tablespoonful of butter and one of flour are 
used for every cup of milk or other liquid. 

There are two classes of these soups, one in which 
small pieces of the vegetable, already cooked, are added 
to the required amount of white sauce, as in cream of 
asparagus soup, or celery soup; the other in which 
sifted vegetable pulp is used, as in corn soup or potato 
soup. The distinction, however, is more or less arbitrary, 
since asparagus soup is sometimes made of the sifted 
pulp, and corn of the canned corn without being sifted. 

The general rule for milk soups is to add to the white 
sauce — which must have extra seasoning — the desired 
amount of the vegetable or vegetable pulp, and cook the 
two together until the mixture boils. From one-half to an 
equal amount of vegetable is the proportion usually added 
to the sauce, this being one of the cases where there is 
wide scope for individual taste. Much will depend, of 
course, on the flavor of the vegetable — whether or not 
this is pronounced. 

A cream tomato soup, on account of the tendency of the 
tomato acid to curdle the milk, is often made after adding 
a little baking soda, about one-quarter teaspoon to each 
cup, to the sifted tomato pulp. Since the flavor of the 
tomato is altered by the addition of the soda, and since 
the soda is not always desirable from the standpoint of 
digestion, the following method of making this soup may 
be used, and if carefully followed there will be no danger 
of curdling. 



106 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

Cream Tomato Soup; sometimes called Mock Bisque 

Soup 
Ingredients 

2 tablespoonfuls flour. 2 cups sifted tomato pulp. 

2 tablespoonfuls butter. 2 cups milk. 

Seasoning, salt and pepper. 

Method. Melt the butter and blend with it the flour 
and seasoning. Add the tomato pulp, and stir until the 
mixture has boiled for one minute. Add the milk, keep 
stirring until the mixture ceases to be ^' ropy," let it 
come to a boil, and serve. 

Milk Toast 

Bread for toast should be cut neither too thin not too 
thick; a half -inch thick is a good proportion. An ordinary 
brick-shaped loaf should yield sixteen slices. 

The slices can be toasted on the rack of the broiling 
oven of the gas range, or in any other preferred way. 
They should not be approached too closely to the source 
of heat at first, so that they may be sufficiently dried out 
by evaporation to insure the right amount of crispness 

— good judgment must be exercised here, for this dish, 
though very simple, is only in perfection when made in 
just the right way. The toast when finished should be 
crisp, but not too brittle, and should be a uniform golden 
brown on both sides. Each slice should be then dipped 

— for an instant merely — into very hot salted water, 
just " off " the boil. The process of dipping must be so 
rapid, and the toast must be at so exactly the right stage 
of crispness, that the slices will not be soggy. They are 
then placed on a hot platter, and while still fresh and 
steaming a thin white sauce is poured over them. The 



MILK 107 

pepper should be omitted from the seasoning of this 
sauce. 

The sauce should be prepared before the slices are 
toasted, since the success of the dish depends so largely 
on the quickness of the last steps, the toast being 
dipped before the fresh, '' crispy " odor has vanished, and 
the sauce being poured over the slices while the first of 
the steam is rising. Only one or two slices should be pre- 
pared by a begimier. A half-cupful of sauce will be suffi- 
cient for two slices. 

VARIATIONS ON MILK TOAST 

Egg Toast. This is made by adding to every cup of the 
white sauce for a plain milk toast one chopped, hard- 
boiled egg. 

Fruit Toasts. Peach, apple, strawberry, and other toasts 
are made by substituting hot, stewed fruit for the white 
sauce used in the ordinary milk toast. These form very 
acceptable luncheon dishes. 

Tomato Toast. This is made similarly to the fruit 
toast, and can be served as a vegetable or as an entree. 
A little cheese, grated over the top, adds to its savoriness. 

MILK PUDDINGS 

Bread and Butter Pudding 
Ingredients. 

^ of 1 stale loaf. 1 to 2 eggs. 

2 to 3 cupfuls rich milk. Butter, from H to 34 pound. 

Y2 cupful sugar. Raisins, preserves, or jelly. 

Method. Cut the bread in one-half inch slices, and 
spread each slice liberally with butter. Fit the slices 



108 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

into a baking dish with the buttered side down, and scatter 
raisins between the layers. 

Dissolve the sugar in the milk, which may or may not 
be heated, and stir into the mixture the well-beaten yolks 
of the eggs. Pour this over the bread in the baking dish, 
cover, and bake for 20 m. 

Take off the cover and allow the bread to brown. Then 
spread a layer of jelly or preserve on the top — quince 
is the best — pile over this a meringue made from the 
whites of the eggs (see Chapter V, page 33), and replace 
in the oven until the meringue is firm and very delicately 
browned. 

Chocolate Bread Pudding 

The ingredients and quantities are practically the same 
as for Bread and Butter Pudding, except that the butter 
is omitted and two ounces of grated chocolate are dis- 
solved and added to the milk. The bread, instead of 
being sliced, is grated, and if very stale an extra cup of 
milk may be needed. 

In both of these puddings the fruit and jelly may be 
omitted if a plainer pudding is desired. 

Note. According to the results of investigations by the Wash- 
ington Department of Nutrition, Bulletin 53, Office of Experiment 
Stations, bread and milk, when taken in combination, are more com- 
pletely digested than when either one is eaten by itself. The foregoing 
recipes for milk toast and puddings suggest pleasing combinations of 
these foods. 

STUDY OF THE PHYSICAL AND OTHER PROPERTIES 

OF MILK 

1. Mount a drop of milk on a slide under a cover glass, 
and examine it under the microscope (625 diameters). 

2. Ascertain the weight of a given quantity of milk as 
compared with the weight of a similar quantity of water. 



MILK 109 

3. Test the reaction of milk to litmus, using strips of 
both red and blue litmus paper. It would be well, if 
possible, to test two samples of milk, one freshly drawn, 
one several hours old. 

4. Ascertain the boiling point of milk. 

5. Test whole*milk with the lactometer; test skimmed 
milk; test cream. Compare the specific gravity of these 
with that of water. 

6. Apply Babcock's fat test to milk, if the apparatus 
is available. 

STUDY OF CHEESE IN COOKING 
Welsh Rabbit 

Ingredients. Cheese, sliced or grated; milk, seasoning 
of salt and pepper, mustard, paprika, onion juice, etc. 
Egg and butter are sometimes used. 

Proportions. One-eighth as much milk as grated cheese, 
or one-fourth as much milk may be used if egg is added. 
Not more than one teaspoon of butter to a cup of cheese. 
Seasoning to taste, about twice as much mustard as salt 
will be sufficient, unless the flavor of mustard is greatly 
liked. 

Method. Melt the butter in the saucepan. Add the 
milk and the grated cheese, and stir until the cheese is 
just melted. Add the seasoning, and the beaten egg, if 
this is used, and stir the mixture until it is slightly thick- 
ened, but not stringy. Pour at once on toasted crackers 
or pieces of toast and serve immediately. 

Make a second Welsh rabbit, using the same propor- 
tions and ingredients as for the first, but adding with the 
seasoning one-eighth of a teaspoonful of bicarbonate of 
soda or potash. 

Compare the two as to consistency. 



110 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

A simple form of Welsh rabbit, and one that will not 
readily curdle or string, is made on the basis of a thick 
white sauce, as follows. The thick white sauce is made 
similarly to the medium white sauce (see Chapter II, 
page 9), except that the proportions call for four table- 
spoonfuls of flour and four of butter to on? cupful of liquid. 
Any extra seasoning that may be desired for the rabbit is 
added, and when the sauce is cooked, from three to four 
times its volume of grated or thinly sliced cheese is stirred 
in, and the whole is cooked until it is of the proper 
consistency. 

VARIATIONS ON THE SIMPLER FORMS OF WELSH 

RABBIT 

Olive Rabbit. Chopped olives or pimolas may be 
stirred in the last thing. In this case the brine from the 
olives should be substituted for milk in making the rabbit. 

Oyster Rabbit. Parboiled oysters are added to the 
rabbit when it is nearly ready to be removed from the 
fire. Oyster liquor is substituted for the milk. 

Yorkshire Rabbit. This has toasted bacon, cut in 
little bits, added to the rabbit the last thing. Or a strip 
of the bacon may be placed on the rabbit just before 
serving. 

Golden Buck. This is a rabbit with a poached egg 
placed on the top. 

Scotch Woodcock. The toast or crackers on which the 
rabbit is served are first spread with anchovy paste, and 
chopped, hard-boiled eggs are stirred into the rabbit be- 
fore it is poured on these. 

Note. An under-ripe cheese will not make a good rabbit, for it 
will separate and oil. This will also happen if a filled cheese is 
used. 



QUESTIONS 111 



TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1. Methods of preserving milk; condensed and evapo- 
rated milk, dessicated milk, and milk powders. 

2. Derivatives of milk, malted milk, etc. The souring 
of milk. The theory of Metchnikoff. 

3. The market prices of milk and cream of different 
quaUty. Food laws relating to milk, butter, cream, 
and cheese. Certified milk. The use of viscogen in 
cream. 

4. The best dairy breeds of cattle for yield of milk, for 
cream, for cheese-making. 

5. Varieties of butter, pasteurized, unsalted, creamery, 
dairy, etc. Renovated or process butter. Butter vs. 
butter fat. Oleomargarine. 

6. The different classes of cheese, skim-milk, whole 
milk, milk and cream, cream. 

7. Comparison of the various kinds of cheese, e.g., 
Edam, Gouda, Gruyere, Parmesan, Cheddar, Gor- 
gonzola, Roquefort, Stilton, etc. 

8. American cheese and its manufacture. 

9. Food laws relating to milk, butter, cream, and 
cheese. Oleomargarine, and the laws relating to its 
manufacture and sale. 

10. Milk from other animals than the cow. 

11. Diseases conveyed by milk. Sterilization and pas- 
teurization of milk. 

12. Milk as a food for the young; as a food for adults. 
The constituents of milk considered in detail.. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Compare the composition of cream and milk (see 
charts). Compare the proportions here with the pro- 
portions you discovered to hold good in the case of some 
other food. (See Question 10, Chapter X, page 88.) 

2. What constituents in milk were isolated in the 
work of this chapter? 

3. Compare the whipping of cream with the frothing 
of milk when it boils. 



112 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

4. Compare two methods of making Welsh rabbit 
with the two methods of making the dish where potatoes 
are combined with cheese in Chapter II, pages 9 and 10. 

5. Compare the making of the cream tomato soup with 
the making of another soup made on a milk basis, given 
in a preceding lesson. 

6. Should the scale of the lactometer read up or down? 
Why? Show why milk that has been skimmed and 
then has water added might respond to the standard spe- 
cific gravity test with the lactometer. 

7. Discuss butter fat vs. butter as estimated by 
Babcock's test. 

8. Account for the relative cost of cream and of butter. 

9. What is the nutritive ratio of milk? What bearing 
has this on the suitability of milk as a food for the 
young? 

10. Discuss the changes brought about by the boiling 
of milk. 

11. Is milk to be considered as a beverage or as a solid 
food? What bearing has this on our use of milk as a 
beverage, whether it should be sipped slowly or swallowed 
at a draught? What bearing has it on our combination 
of milk with other foods? 

12. Compare the three white sauces, and make a list 
of the dishes which are based on each. Keep this list 
on a separate page, so that you may add to it from time 
to time 

EXERCISES 

1. Devise a method of pasteurizing milk. Consult 
your instructor as to its practicality, and then carry out 
your process, verifying its results by a comparison of the 
behavior of raw milk with your pasteurized milk when 
both are applied to some culture medium. 

2. Show how a thin cream may be stiffened with gela- 
tine and beaten to a froth. 

3. Combine milk with sago, arrowroot, or some other 
farinaceous food, with appropriate flavoring, and addition 
of other substances so as to make a dish which shall have 
an approximately correct nutrient ratio. 




113 



114 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

4. Make a cheese souffle on the basis of one-half cupful 
of a thick white sauce and an equal quantity of cheese. 

5. Devise attractive modes of serving cheese in com- 
bination with green vegetables such as lettuce, cress, etc., 
which are rich in potash salts. 

6. Make a coffee, cocoa, or chocolate junket. 

7. Mocha icing for cakes, etc., is made of butter, thor- 
oughly washed in cold water until it is of a waxy consist- 
ency, and then mixed with powdered sugar and flavored 
with very strong coffee. It should be a rich brown color, 
and have a strong flavor of coffee. Make a portion on 
the basis of one-quarter cupful of butter. 

References 

Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XXI. 

Church. Foods, Part III. 

Conn. Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home, see Index. 

Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chap. XVII. 

Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chaps. VII, VIII, and IX. 

Lassar-Cohn. Chemistry in Daily Life, Lecture III and IV. 

Lusk. Science of Nutrition, Chaps. IX and X. 

Russell. Dairy Bacteriology. 

Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. VII. 

Thompson. Practical Dietetics, Milk. 

Wiley. Foods and Food Adulterants, Part JY. 

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: No. 9, The Fermen- 
tations of Milk; 29, The Souring of Milk; 42, Facts About Milk; 63, 
Care of Milk on the Farm; 74, Milk as Food, and 363, The Use of 
Milk as Food. 

Also, Farmers' Bulletin L31: Household Tests for the Detection of 
Oleomargarine and Renovated Butter; and Bulletin 61, U. S. Dept. of 
Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry: The Relation of Bacteria to 
the Flavor of Cheddar Cheese. 



CHAPTER XIII 
FATS 

To the Student. The fats most commonly used in the 
diet are cream, butter, and oHve oil. Fatty foods which 
are so rich in this substance as almost to come under the 
heading of pure fats are bacon, pork, many varieties of 
nuts, some of the rich cream cheeses, the yolks of eggs, 
chocolate, etc. Then there are the fats which are used 
as a medium for conveying heat, as in deep fat frying, and 
the fats which are used as shortening. 

Since fat when overcooked is chemically changed to 
such an extent as to become very unwholesome — even 
poisonous — it is quite essential to know how to use fat 
so that we may gain rather than lose in health and vigor 
from employing it freely in our daily meals. 

STUDY OF FAT IN COOKING SALAD DRESSINGS, ETC. 

French Dressing 

Ingredients and Proportions. One part of vinegar to 
three of oil; about one-half teaspoonful of salt and one- 
quarter teaspoonful of pepper to every three tablespoon- 
fuls of oil. 

Method. Mix the seasoning with the oil, then add the 
vinegar slowly, stirring it well in, so that the dressing, 
when finished, shall have the appearance of a grayish, 

115 




116 



FATS 117 

slightly thickened emulsion. In a well-made dressing 
the taste of both the oil and the vinegar should be lost in 
the blending of both. 

This dressing is appropriate for all green salads. 

Variations. The flavored vinegars, such as tarragon or 
chervil, may be used if desired. Lemon juice may be sub- 
stituted for vinegar, and this is by some considered whole- 
somer. A dash of paprika, even a few grains of cayenne, 
or a spoonful of onion juice, will be relished by many 
persons. 

Marinade ^ 

This is a mixture in which the proportions of oil and 
vinegar for a French dressing are reversed, so that one 
part of oil to three of vinegar are used. A flavored marin- 
ade has added to it the seasonings used in the regular 
dressing. This is used to prepare either over-dry or flavor- 
less substances for a salad. For instance, fish, potatoes, 
the white meat of chicken, etc., are cut up and allowed 
to stand in the marinade for a couple of hours before 
making the salad, and a certain piquancy of flavor is 
thus gained. Only a small amount of marinade should 
be used for this purpose — not more than will be absorbed 
by the food to be marinated. Such a salad is usually 
served with a mayonnaise dressing. 

An unflavored marinade is composed of vinegar and oil 
without other seasoning. A tough steak may be immersed 
in this for several hours, or overnight, to make it tender, 
then drained, wiped, and broiled. Such a marinade 
can be made in large quantity, and used over and 
over again. 

1 Note that the noun is marinade, while the verb is marinate, so that you could 
say, " I will make a marinade to marinate the fish," 



118 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

Mayonnaise 
Ingredients and Proportions. 

Yolk 1 egg. 3^ to 1 teaspoonful salt. 

From 1 to 2 cupfuls oil. A dash cayenne. 

1 to 2 tablespoonfuls vinegar, A teaspoonful each powdered 

or half this quantity lemon sugar and dry mustard are 

juice. optional. 

Method. The oil and the egg yolk should be chilled be- 
fore beginning the work, or if the weather is very warm 
the mixing dish should be stood in a bowl of cracked ice. 
Stir the seasoning into the egg yolk with a fork, then add 
one drop of oil, and stir until this is thoroughly incorpo- 
rated before adding another drop. Proceed to add the 
oil, a drop at a time, until about a teaspoonful has been 
used; then it may be added in larger quantity, or a thin 
stream may be continuously poured from a utensil con- 
structed for this purpose. When the dressing grows too 
thick to be worked it should be carefully thinned out by 
the addition of a few drops of the vinegar, and the oil and 
vinegar should be thus alternated until the desired amount 
of oil has been added. The yolk of one egg can be made to 
take up a pint of oil, though only one-half this quantity 
is generally allowed. 

The mayonnaise, Avhen completed, should be smooth 
and glossy in appearance, and in consistency it should 
hang from the fork but not drop. 

An expert can use many liberties in making this dress- 
ing, but in inexperienced hands, even when great care is 
used, the mixture will often separate slightly or curdle. 
The best remedy is then to begin all over, using the curdled 
dressing instead of oil to add to another egg yolk. 

This dressing is appropriate for the heavier salads, such 
as those of meat, fish, the more fleshy vegetables, etc. 



FATS 



119 



Variations. The yolk of one hard-boiled egg can be 
blended with the yolk of one raw egg as a foundation for 
the oil, and the danger of curdling will be minimized by 
this method. 

For a fruit salad enough of powdered sugar is used to 
sweeten the mixture to taste, from one to two tablespoon- 
fuls to a cupful of oil. 

A red mayomiaise can be made with beet vinegar, or 
pounded lobster coral can be added to the dressing when 
finished. 

For a green mayonnaise the juice from pounded raw 
spinach should be heated very slightly until green flecks 
can be separated; these are added to the dressing. If the 
spinach juice is overheated the color will be changed. 

A white mayomiaise has for its foundation a light- 
colored yolk of egg, and lemon juice, which has a bleach- 
ing effect, is substituted for vinegar. Or whipped cream, 
or stiffly beaten white of egg, can be added to an ordinary 
mayonnaise just before serving. 

A mayonnaise tartare, sometimes called sauce tart are, 

is a plain mayonnaise with chopped pickles of any desired 

varieties added at serving time. 

Note. A well-made mayonnaise wall keep good for several weeks 
if poured into small jars or glasses, covered, and stored in the refriger- 
ator. 

Mock Mayonnaise No. i 
Ingredients and Proportions. 

3 eggs. 1 teaspoonful butter to each egg. 

Yl tabiespoonful lemon juice Seasoning, salt, pepper, celery 

to each egg. seed, paprika, or mustard 

and sugar if desired. 

Method. Beat the eggs very stiff. Add seasoning and 
lemon juice, and beat again. Cook over hot water or in a 
double boiler, beating or stirring until the mixture has 



120 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

thickened. Remove from fire, pour into a dish set in cold 
water, add the butter, and stir until the dressing is cool. 

Mock Mayonnaise No. 2, or Cooked Dressing. See 
Dressing for Hot Slaw, Chapter X, page 85. 

Cream Dressing 

Ingredients and Proportions. Thick cream, and one- 
fourth as much vinegar as cream. Seasoning of salt and 
pepper, also paprika, celery salt, sugar, or other condi- 
ments if desired. 

Method. Whip the cream until stiff, add the season- 
ing, lastly the vinegar, a little at a time, beating it well in. 

Sour Cream Dressing 

Ingredients and Proportions. Thick cream, slightly 
soured, and one-eighth as much vinegar as cream. Season- 
ing as for cream dressing. One or two hard-boiled yolks 
of eggs, put through a ricer, may be added to each cupful 
of the cream. 

Method. Proceed as for cream dressing. 

DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING SALADS 

Green vegetables, that is, fresh, uncooked vegetables 
such as celery, cress, lettuce, tomato, etc., must be cool 
and crisp. To bring about this condition they should be 
thoroughly washed, allowed to stand in fresh, cold water 
until all signs of wilting or softening have disappeared, then 
wrapped in a damp towel and placed in the refrigerator un- 
til needed. The leaf vegetables in particular, such as let- 
tuce, cabbage, romaine, or endive, seem to retain their crisp- 
ness better if wrapped in a damp towel than if allowed to 
stand in water, or if placed on a dish in the refrigerator. 

Fruits, such as apples and oranges, should be chilled, 



FATS 121 

but not pared or sliced until the last thing. Grapes, 
cherries, etc., should be seeded or pitted. 

Cooked foods, such as potatoes, beets, chicken, fish, 
etc., may be sliced or cut in cubes and set away until 
serving time. 

The dressing, with the exception of a marinade, should 
not be mixed with any green salad until just before it is 
brought to the table, since the vinegar will cause fresh 
vegetables to wilt. 

In the combination of the various vegetables, fruits, 
nuts, with one another or with meats or fish, there is un- 
bounded scope for individual taste, as there is also in the 
tasteful arrangement and decoration of every salad. The 
illustrations on pages 113 and 116 will be perhaps sug- 
gestive of new methods of combination or arrangement, 
but everyone should be able to express her own tastes 
and her own sense of the artistic in the construction 
of some novel salad which shall be '' good for food, and 
pleasant to the eyes." 

DEEP FAT FRYING 

Frying is a method of cooking food by immersing it in 
very hot fat. Properly fried food should not be unwhole- 
some for ordinarily healthy persons. The overheating 
of the fat, to the point when chemical decomposition 
takes place, and when the irritating or poisonous sub- 
stances are formed which were mentioned at the beginning 
of this chapter, is the most important thing to avoid in 
this method of cooking. The beginning of this decomposi- 
tion is usually indicated by the appearance of a delicate 
blue smoke or vapor, which rises first from the sides of the 
kettle, later from the whole surface of the fat. If the 
articles to be fried are plunged into the fat at the first 



122 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

appearance of this vapor the temperature will be immedi- 
ately lowered by the introduction of the cold food, and no 
great harm will be done. This is why the best cookery 
books direct that the food shall be immersed in the fat 
when it first begins slightly to smoke at the sides of the 
kettle. This test, however, is not the best for a novice to 
depend on. A more excellent way is to use a thermometer 
to test the temperature of the fat, first at its decomposi- 
tion point, indicated by the blue vapor, next at the temper- 
ature proper for frying. If the decomposition point of 
the fat should be lower than 350-400° F., which is the 
temperature commonly employed in frying, such a fat is 
unfit to use for a cooking medium. 

EXPERIMENTS IN HEATING FAT 

In very small agate saucepans, or any other convenient 
utensils, melt and gradually heat to smokingpoint sufficient 
quantities of butter, lard, beef suet, olive oil or refined 
cottonseed oil, and one or two of the commercial com- 
pound shortenings, so that the bulb of a thermometer 
registering about 600° F. or its equivalent on the Centi- 
grade or other scale may be inserted in the fat as it heats. 

Note in each case: (1) the color of a one-inch cube of 
bread when dropped into the fat on its reaching a tempera- 
ture of 350° F. and allowed to remain in it for exactly 
1 m. (2) The color of a similar cube of bread when cooked 
for forty seconds when the fat has reached 400° F. (3) The 
temperature of each fat when the warning blue vapor ap- 
pears at the sides of the saucepan. 

Since the correct temperature for frying a cooked mix- 
ture is 400° F., and that for an uncooked mixture is 350° F., 
you will now be able to judge which kind of fat is the best 
to use as a cooking medium. 



FATS 123 

FRYING OF A COOKED MIXTURE 
Croquettes 

Make one-half cupful of thick white sauce (see Chapter 
XII, page 110) . Mix with this twice its volume of chopped 
meat or fish, chill (for convenience in handling), and form 
into cylinders. Roll these lightly in finely sifted crumbs 
(this is for the purpose of absorbing any moisture on the 
outside), then dip into a mixture of beaten egg and water, 
(one tablespoonful of water to each egg), and roll once 
more in the sifted crumbs. The water is added to the egg 
to keep it from forming a strong froth, and care should be 
taken, for the same reason, not to beat the egg too much, 
since the froth-bubbles prevent the formation of a uni- 
form coating or envelope of the albumen, and this coat- 
ing, hardening immediately as it does in the hot fat, keeps 
the croquettes from being greasy. 

Loose crumbs should be gently shaken off, and the 
croquettes placed in a frying basket and lowered into the 
fat. They should be cooked in 1 m. 

Drain on absorbent paper, and keep hot until ready to 
serve. 

FRYING OF AN UNCOOKED MIXTURE 
Banana Fritters 

Sift one-half cupful of flour with a small pinch (one- 
eighth teaspoonful) of salt and one teaspoonful of baking 
powder. Stir this mixture into one-quarter cupful of 
liquid, composed of equal parts of milk and beaten egg. 
(One beaten egg mixed with one-quarter cupful of milk 
will be sufficient for two students.) 

Into the batter thus made stir from once to twice 
its volume of pared and sliced bananas, and drop 



124 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

by tablespoonfuls into hot fat at the right temper- 
ature for uncooked mixtures. Cook for 3 m., or 
until the fritters rise to the surface, turn over, and 
are nicely browned. 

Lift out with a skimmer, drain, dust over with powdered 
sugar, and serve with or without a simple sauce. 

LEMON SAUCE 

To Serve with Banana Fritters 

Ingredients. Lemon juice, cornstarch, sugar, water, 
butter. 

Proportions. Four times as much sugar as lemon 
juice; four times as much water as sugar. One tablespoon- 
ful of cornstarch and one tablespoonful of butter to every 
cup of water. 

Method. Heat the water. Mix the sugar thoroughly 
with the cornstarch, and stir into the hot or boiling water. 
If the mixing of the sugar and cornstarch has been 
thorough, and if the water is kept stirred while these are 
being added, there will be no danger of lumping. Allow 
to boil for a minute or less, stirring all the time, then re- 
move from the fire, stir in the butter, let cool a little, and 
add the lemon juice. 

Make another portion of this sauce by cooking the 
lemon juice in with the other ingredients, and see what 
will happen. 

Almond Butter 

Pour boiling water over shelled almonds, and let them 
stand in this for two or three minutes. Drain, put into 
cold water for an instant, and then rub off the skins. 
Stand the blanched nuts in a warm place until dry, grind 
them finely in a food chopper, season very slightly with 



FATS 125 

salt, and use as you would peanut butter for sandwiches, 
etc. 

(See charts for richness of almonds in fat. This fat is said to be 
easier digested than the fat of any other nuts, with the exception of 
the fat of pecans.) 

Broiled Bacon 

Method I. Cut off the rind, and cut the bacon into 
very thin, delicate slices. Cook these in a hot pan, turn- 
ing when the slices become transparent, and removing as 
soon as well curled. Drain off the fat immediately, place 
the cooked bacon slices on absorbent paper, and serve 
either as a breakfast dish or as a garnish for omelet, 
steak, etc. 

Method 2. Place the bacon slices in an oyster broiler 
over a dripping pan in a very hot oven, and cook until 
transparent and beginning to brown at the edges. Serve 
as before. 

Compare the flavor of the two. Which of the principles 
of cooking is illustrated here? 

Deviled Marrow Bones 

Bones from the shin (the fore leg), or the shank (the 
hind leg), of beef should be cut into pieces from one to 
three inches long and scraped clean. Seal the ends with 
a paste made of flour and water in the proportion of four 
to one, tie securely in cheesecloth, and boil for 15 m. for 
the shorter, 25-30 m. for the longer bones. Remove the 
paste, season with salt and cayenne, and serve the smaller 
pieces on toast, the larger neatly wrapped in small 
folded doihes, and garnished with parsley or cress. 

Note. Marrow is a very easily digested and wholesome form of 
fat, and served in this way is often greatly relished as a supper dish. 
The marrow from the shank is thought to be firmer and less oily than 
that from the shin. 



126 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

Experiments to Aid or Confirm Inferences 

I 
Emulsification of Fat 

1. Shake up a small amount of olive or cod-liver oil or 
cottonseed oil in a test tube with a few drops of a solu- 
tion of sodium hydroxide or carbonate of soda. Does the 
whitish substance which results remind you of a food you 
have recently studied? Examine a drop of this whitish 
mass under the microscope. 

2. Shake up as before a small amount of oil with a little 
egg albumin dissolved in water. Examine under the 
microscope as before. 

II 

Solubility of Fat 

1. Shake up small portions of fat in a test tube with the 
following, respectively: Water, alcohol (both cold and 
hot), turpentine, ether. Determine which are solvents 
of fat, and to what extent. 

Ill 
Decomposition of Fat 

1. Heat a little oil or other fat in a test tube until it 
turns brown and dense brown fumes are given off. Note 
the irritating effect of these fumes. Continue heating 
until no further change takes place. 

2. Heat a little glycerine until similar dense brown 
fumes are given off. 

Note. Only exceedingly small portions of above should be used in 
the last experiments, to avoid excess of the disagreeable fumes. 



QUESTIONS 127 

TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1. The physical structure of fatty or adipose tissue. 

2. The chemical composition of fat. The principal 
fatty acids and how their predominance in the common 
fatty foods affects the solidity, the melting point, etc., of 
these foods. 

3. The value of fat as food, its digestion and assimila- 
tion. The amount required in health. Its use in disease. 

4. Fat as a protein sparer; how it compares with the 
carbohydrates, with gelatine, as a proteid sparer. Nations 
and races that make abundant use of fat in the diet. 

5. The difference between the fats and the hydrocar- 
bons. The difference between the fixed and the volatile 
oils. 

6. Industries which deal with fats; the lard-making 
and fat-rendering industry; the soap manufactories; the 
manufacture of olive oil, of cottonseed oil, etc. 

7. Food laws which relate to various fats. 

8. The value of salads in the diet. The elements in 
salads that are nutritious, or tissue building ; the elements 
that are wholesome, appetizing, purifying to the system 
by the action of vegetable acids or salts, etc. 

9. National customs with regard to the use of salads. 

10. Conditions under which aconitic and acrylic acids 
are formed during cooking processes. 

Note. Much that is new, and that has an important bearing on the 
fats, is now being brought out by organic chemistry. Advanced students 
will be interested to study the later theories of em ulsifi cation, colloidal 
solution, hydrolysis, and saponification if they are qualified by previous 
training to pursue the subject. Very important problems will be found 
to be involved in trying to understand what kind of change is brought 
about in the mixing of even such a simple thing as a French dressing 
— not to speak of a mayonnaise. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Discuss the costliness of some of the fatty foods. 
Name some of the less expensive fats, and suggest methods 
of making them palatable. 

2. What foods are especially deficient in fats? 



128 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

3. Name some foods rich in both fat and protein. 

4. Name some foods rich in fat and carbohydrate. 

5. In what diseases is fat thought to be especially bene- 
ficial? In what cases should it be sparingly used? 

6. When, broadly speaking, may fat be preferable to 
carbohydrate, and when may carbohydrate be preferable 
to fat, as a source of energy? Consider, in this answer, 
various occupations, factory workers, sempstresses, farm- 
ers, lumbermen, tailors, etc. 

7. Which fatty foods are rich in stearin? which in 
olein? What is peculiar about butter as a fatty food? 
What happens when butter or other fats become rancid? 

8. Why, in making a white sauce, should you be very 
careful merely to soften the butter, and not to overcook 
it, preparatory to blending with it the other ingredients? 

9. Discuss oleomargarine vs. butter for table use; for 
use in cooking. 

10. Ammonia is found to be a by-product of the lard- 
rendering works. Try to account for its formation under 
the conditions of the manufacture of lard. 

11. Similarly account for the production of glycerine as 
a by-product of the soap factory. 

12. Trace, so far as you can, the relation between the 
experiments and the practical work outlined in this chapter. 

13. If you dropped grease on your apron or dress, how 
might you best remove it? Name some other practical 
applications in the work of the home of your knowledge 
regarding the solvents of fat. 

14. Enumerate the principles of the preparation of fats 
for food that you have learned in using the recipes in this 
chapter. 

15. What principle has been reviewed in this chapter? 
What new principle has been learned in the making of the 
lemon sauce? 

EXERCISES 

1. Nutted cream is a rich dessert made of thick cream, 
sweetened, flavored, mixed with chopped almonds or 
pecans, then chilled, molded, sprinkled with very finely 



EXERCISES 129 

chopped nuts on being turned out of the mold, and served 
with a fruit sauce. A small amount of gelatine will be 
needed to stiffen the mold. Make a nutted cream on the 
basis of one cupful of cream. 

2. A suet pudding is made of equal parts of finely 
chopped suet, molasses, and milk, with three times as 
much flour as suet. Salt, one-fourth teaspoonful to each 
cupful of flour, and baking powder, from one to two tea- 
spoonfuls to a cupful of flour, are added. Either nutmeg, 
or other ground spice, and dried fruit make a very wel- 
come addition. Make a suet pudding on the basis of one- 
half cupful of flour. The pudding may be steamed in a 
well-greased mold, or tied in a floured cloth and cooked in 
boiling water. 

3. '^ Scrapple " is a dish made of corn-meal mush, with 
salt pork, previously cooked and chopped, stirred into 
it. The mixture may be molded in bread tins, and when 
cold can be sliced and fried. Make a small mold of 
scrapple. 

References 

Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XVIII. 

Chittenden. Physiological Economy in Nutrition, Chaps. I, II, III. 

Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chaps. IV, V, VII. 

Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, see Index. 

Lassar-Cohn. Chemistry in Daily Life, Lectures IV and IX. 

Lusk. The Science of Nutrition, Chap. VII. 

Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Chap. I; also see Index. 

Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. I. 

Thompson. Practical Dietetics, see Index. 

Wiley. Foods and Food Adulterants, see Index. 

Any text on Organic Chemistry for aconitic and acrylic acids. 



CHAPTER XIV 
CEREALS AND OTHER STARCHY FOODS 

To the Student. From the work of the preceding 
chapters you have learned that some foods are made very 
much more appetizing by cooking, from the development 
of flavor; that some foods are rendered more and some are 
rendered less digestible by cooking processes, so that 
we often sacrifice wholesomeness for the sake of delicious- 
ness; and that all foods are sterilized by the application 
of heat. In cooking the cereals it is safe to assume that 
only the best results may be expected, for the flavor of the 
grains, though slight, will be developed, the digestibility 
will be increased, and sterilization will be insured. But 
of these three results of cooking the most essential as 
regards the cereals, that is, the digestibility, is almost 
wholly dependent on the cooking processes. Hence in the 
preparation of these grains we shall aim at this result 
alone, and the other two will be found to take care of 
themselves. 

Since a double boiler, or its equivalent in some other 
form of utensil, is commonly used in the cooking of cereals 
and other foods, it would be interesting for you to devise 
a means of ascertaining the temperature of the water that 
is in the inside part of a double boiler when the water in 
the outside part is boiling. One or more girls in the class 

130 



CEREALS AND OTHER STARCHY FOODS 131 

might demonstrate this experiment to the others. Differ- 
ent styles of double boilers should be used, holding differ- 
ent amounts of water in the outside compartment; double 
boilers having kettles of different material, agateware, 
aluminum, etc., should be experimented with, and the 
effect of prolonged cooking on the temperature of the con- 
tents of the inner kettle should also be ascertained. 

GENERAL RULES FOR THE COOKERY OF CEREALS 

Ingredients. Water, salt, cereal. 

Proportions. From one-half to one teaspoonful of salt 
for every cup of water used is a good proportion of this 
ingredient. 

The proportions of cereal to water vary according to 
the kind of cereal used, the method of manufacture, and 
the consistency preferred by the cook. The somewhat ar- 
bitrary terms ''gruel," ''mush," and "porridge" have been 
applied to varying degrees of thickness, the gruel being a 
watery, almost fluid mixture, the mush a much thicker 
preparation, and the porridge the stiffest of the three. 
Four times as much water, by weight, as cereal is a good 
working proportion, but one that must be modified by 
the conditions just mentioned, particularly by that of the 
taste of the individual. 

Method. Add the salt to the water, and boil the mixture 
in the inside part of a double boiler. Add the dry cereal 
slowly to the boiling water, stirring meanwhile to increase 
the agitation of the water. Let it boil for from three to 
five minutes, stirring only occasionally, for prolonged 
stirring during the cooking process is apt to make the 
cereal waxy. Put on the cover, and place the kettle in 
the outside part of the double boiler, which should be 
filled one-third full with boiling water. Cook, closely 



132 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

covered, for the length of time required, and keep up the 
quantity of water in the outside boiler if this should boil 
away. 

Cereal cooked in a fireless cooker will, of course, need no 
further attention after the compartment is covered. 

Note. Corn meal, and perhaps one or two other cereals of simi- 
lar texture, should be mixed with an equal volume of cold water before 
being stirred into the boiling water, to avoid lumping. The volume of 
cold water used should be allowed for in measuring the proportion of 
water to cereal. 

STUDY OF CEREAL IN COOKING 

Method I. To one cupful of rapidly boiling salted 
water add two ounces of any of the quick-cooking break- 
fast cereals. Boil for 3 m., cover, place in double boiler, 
and cook for one hour. 

Method 2. Put on the cereal in cold, salted water, let 
it come to a boil, allow to boil for 3 m., and proceed as 
before. 

Method 3. Cook the same amount of cereal in the 
manner and for the time prescribed in the directions on 
the box. 

Compare the three, as to taste and consistency, and 
frame, as a result of your experiments, the rule regarding 
the proportion of water to cereal that you think most ap- 
propriate for this particular variety. Remember, how- 
ever, that great exactness is impossible, since the com- 
position of the same cereal will vary from year to year, 
according to soil, season, and other factors. 

Method 4. Cook for from six to ten hours a similar 
proportion of cereal and water to the proportion used in 
Methods 1 and 2, but a much larger quantity should 
be prepared, lest the small amount should dry out too 
much during the prolonged cooking process. The cereal 
in this case might be cooked at home by some member 



CEREALS AND OTHER STARCHY FOODS 133 

of the class, or the process started earlier in the day by 
some student who has time. 

Method 5. Divide the cereal cooked by the first, 
second, or third method into three parts — A, B, and C. 
To A, previously cooled to from 100° to 150° F., add one 
teaspoonful of dry malt flour. Mix, and allow to stand 
for 5 m. Keep B at boiling point, and add to it a similar 
quantity of the malt flour, cooking the mixture for 5 m. 
Let C remain for a control test. Compare all three as to 
taste and consistency. 

Note. Malt flour can be obtained at any of the manufactories 
of malted breakfast foods, or it may be made by grinding up some 
barley or other grain that has been allowed to sprout in a shallow 
dish of water until the young shoots are about as long as the grain. 

ACCOMPANIMENTS TO CEREALS 

Dates, or any other dried fruit, chopped and lightly 
stirred in a few minutes before removing the cereal from 
the fire, make a pleasing variety. Or the cooked cereal 
may be served with baked apple or apple sauce. Or a 
spoonful of fig marmalade, made by pressing steamed figs 
through a colander, tastes good with rice, or cereals of 
undecided flavor. 

Cream is a logical accompaniment to the breakfast 
cereal, since it supplies the fat in which most of the grains 
are deficient. 

Boiled Macaroni 

Break some sticks of macaroni into one-inch pieces until 
you have from one-quarter to one-half a cupful. Cook in 
a large quantity of boiling, salted water until done. The 
time for cooking depends on both the method of manufac- 
ture and the age of the macaroni, and varies from 20 to 
40 m. When done, the strips, if cut across, should not 
show a thin line of uncooked paste in the center. 



134 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

The macaroni should be drained when cooked, and 
some persons like to hold the colander for a moment 
under a stream of cold water from the faucet, so as to 
prevent the strips from clinging to one another. 

The boiled macaroni may be served with a white sauce, 
or may be combined with tomato like cabbage (see 
Chapter III, page 16), or with cheese like potato (see 
Chapter II, page 9), or it may be mixed with apple sauce. 

SPONGE PUDDINGS 
Lemon Sponge 

Ingredients. One cup of water, a pinch (one-eighth 
teaspoonful) of salt, four tablespoonfuls of sugar, two of 
lemon juice, and one and one-half of cornstarch. The 
whites of one or two eggs, stiffly beaten. 

Method. Boil the water, add the salt, then the corn- 
starch, either blended with sugar or rubbed to a smooth 
paste with a little cold water. Cook in a double boiler 
for 30 m., or for 15 m. if cooked directly over the fire. In 
the latter case the mixture should be constantly stirred to 
avoid burning. Remove from the heat, and while still 
in the saucepan beat in the stiffly beaten whites of eggs. 
Add the lemon juice, beating this in also. Mold and chill. 

Repeat this pudding, using the following method. Add 
the lemon juice, sugar, and cornstarch at the same time, 
and cook them together for 15 to 30 m.; then proceed as 
before. 

Compare the flavor and consistency of the two puddings. 

Orange Sponge 

Omit the lemon juice, and substitute orange juice for 
part or all of the water. A good proportion is half and 
half, orange juice and water. Cook the cornstarch in this 



CEREALS AND OTHER STARCHY FOODS 135 

mixture for half the time allowed for the lemon sponge, ' 
add the sugar, then the beaten whites of eggs. Mold, etc., 
as before. 

Compare the flavor and consistency of this pudding 
with that of the lemon pudding made by the first method. 

Note. The lemon and orange sponge puddings were chosen for 
the purpose of illustrating a principle in the cooking of starch and a 
principle in the cooking of lemon juice. Other delicious sponge pud- 
dings may be made by using grape juice, huckleberry juice, the juice 
from canned or preserved fruit — that from canned cherries being 
particularly good — or indeed almost any fruit juice or fruit pulp. 

Experiments to Illustrate Methods of Inducing 
Chemical Change in Starch 

Prepare a starch paste by boiling for a few seconds five 
grams of pure potato starch with 500 cc. of distilled water. 
The starch should be rubbed to a paste in a little of the 
water before it is boiled, and this portion stirred into the 
remainder of the water as it boils. 

Prepare a solution of iodine by dissolving two grams 
of potassium iodide in 100 cc. of water. Add to this one 
gram of pure iodine, and shake the whole well together. 
This solution may be stored for future experimentation, 
but should be diluted to a strength of 23^ per cent, or 5 cc. 
of the solution to 200 cc. of water, before use. 

1. To 15 cc. of the starch paste in a test tube add two 
drops of a 20 per cent solution of sulphuric acid. Boil 
for some minutes, testing from time to time by taking out 
a drop on the end of a glass rod, dropping it on a dish, and 
adding to it one drop of the diluted iodine solution. 

2. To 15 cc. of the starch paste in a test tube add a 
little malt flour. Heat gently to blood- warm, and main- 
tain at this temperature in a water bath for several 
minutes. Test from time to time as before. 



136 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

3. In two test tubes, A and B, collect small quantities 
of saliva. To A add an equal volume of lemon juice, 
vinegar, or any acid used in the preparation of food. 
Let the mixture stand for a few minutes, then add to tubes 
A and B a volume of the starch paste equal to the con- 
tents of each tube. Keep the two in a water bath at about 
blood-warm temperature and test their contents from 
time to time with iodine until no color change occurs 
in B. 

TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1. The structure of the cereal grains in general. Dia- 
grams of the starch grains of the cereals. 

2. The composition of the cereal grains in general. 
The particular grains which are richest in protein, in fat, 
in carbohydrate, in minerals. How methods of manu- 
facture of various cereal preparations affect or modify 
their original composition. 

3. Comparison of the cost and nutritive value of the 
ready-prepared cereals, such as shredded wheat biscuit, 
puffed rice, or corn flakes, with that of two or more of the 
grains which need cooking before being served. The basis 
of this comparison might be the 100-calorie portion. 
(See charts, page 218.) 

4. National customs with regard to the use of cereal 
grains in the diet. 

5. The structure of starch grains in general. 

6. A comparison of the differences in the structure of the 
starch grains of different cereals, of potato, arrowroot, etc. 

7. The starch-digesting ferments in the grains; in the 
human digestive secretions. Conditions which inhibit 
the action of these enzymes. Some steps in the digestion 
or hydrolysis of starch. 

8. The cycle of carbon in nature. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Reviewing the work of your course so far, name as 
many foods as you can which have the flavor decidedly 



QUESTIONS 137 

developed by cooking ; which are rendered more digest- 
ible by cooking; which are rendered less digestible by 
cooking. 

2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the 
double boiler as a cooking utensil. 

3. What cereal is the most nutritious, that is, yields the 
largest amount of protein and calories for the smallest 
cost? (See charts, page 218.) 

4. Which of the cereal preparations, considering its 
nutritive value, is the most expensive? What justifies the 
purchase of the more expensive preparations? In what 
cases might the saving of time, labor, and fuel be more 
than equivalent to the extra cost of an expensive, ready- 
prepared cereal? In what cases might the housewife more 
profitably utilize her own time and energy in the prepara- 
tion of the breakfast cereal? 

5. Why did the cereal cooked by Method 5-A become 
thinner or more liquid in consistency than the other two 
parts of the same cereal experimented with in this step 
of the lesson? 

6. Account for the alteration in the flavor of the lemon 
juice brought about by the second method of cooking the 
lemon sponge pudding. What rule regarding the method 
of using lemon juice in cooking can you frame from this 
experience? 

7. Account for the difference in consistency of the 
orange sponge as compared with that of the lemon sponge 
made by the first method. 

8. Why is it especially important that a breakfast mush 
or porridge should be thoroughly cooked? Can you infer 
from any of the steps in your formal experiments why a 
cereal that is so prepared as to be readilj^ swallowed needs 
more thorough cooking than a dry-cereal preparation? 

9. Discuss fully the effect of acid on starch; of acid on 
the action of saliva. Frame, on this basis, some rules for 
the correct preparation of starchy foods; for correct com- 
binations of starchy foods with fruits, etc. 

10. Trace the relation of your experiments to the 
practical work of this chapter. 



138 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

EXERCISES 

1. Devise a method for raising the temperature of the 
contents of the inside part of a double boiler. Consult 
your instructor before demonstrating your method. 

2. Demonstrate three acceptable methods of utilizing 
left-over cereal. 

3. Using three different starchy materials — flour, corn- 
starch, and arrowroot — make three small molds, using 
equal quantities of liquid, so as to estimate the proportion 
of each starchy substance which is needed to stiffen a 
mold. Begin with one tablespoonful of arrowroot to a 
cup of liquid. Recall the experience you have already 
had with flour and cornstarch as a means of determin- 
ing what initial amount of each you shall use in this 
experiment. 

4. Combine cornstarch, lemon juice, gelatine, and white 
of egg, together with sugar, in some dish, showing how you 
have dealt with each of the first four substances so as to 
make it contribute as effectively as possible to the suc- 
cess of the dish. 

5. By means of two simple dishes, show the effect of 
water and heat, and water, heat, and acid, on the same 
quantity of any starchy food so as to illustrate in each 
case the degree of solubility (or hydrolysis) brought about 
by the reagents used. 

6. Make a chocolate sponge pudding. 

7. Make a Turkish pilaff, using such a proportion of 
rice, chicken (or veal), etc., as to make a good nutrient 
ratio. 

8. Using the 100-calorie portion, plan and carry out a 
combination of foods, including one of the cereals, in one 
or more dishes which shall furnish a balanced ration for 
a breakfast for one or more persons. 

References 

Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chaps. XI and XIII. 
Chittenden. Physiological Economy in Nutrition, Chap. I. 
Church. Foods, Part II. 
Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chaps. II and V. 



EXERCISES 139 

Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chaps. X and XI. 

Parloa. Home Economics, see Index. 

Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Chap. II. 

bmith. What to Eat and Why, p. 47. (Ed. 1911.) 

Thompson. Practical Dietetics, see Index. 

Wiley. Foods and their Adulteration, Part V. 



CHAPTER XV 
FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS 




Analysis by Students. 



ANALYSIS OF 1 LB. OF FLOUR 



1. 1 lb. (3 cups) flour. 

2. 14 oz. carbohydrates in 1 

flour. 

3. L7 oz. protein in 1 lb. flour. 



4. .2 oz. fat in 1 lb. flour, 
lb. 5. 1.8 oz. water in 1 lb. flour. 
6. .1 oz. minerals in 1 lb. flour. 



PART L BATTERS 

To the Student. As soon as you have a good working 
knowledge of the scientific principles which underhe many 
cooking processes, and have gained some amount of skill 
in the simple technique of everyday dishes, you should be 
able to use the art of cooking, like any other art, as a 
means of self-expression. The art of cooking is chiefly 
the art of making things taste good, of developing, modify- 
ing, or enhancing flavor, of making delicious combina- 
tions of different substances in one dish. As you gain 
more and more freedom in the use of this art your cook- 
ing will become more and more individual, so that if 

140 



FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS! BATTERS 141 

you really have the gift your cooking will finally be as 
distinctive as your handwriting, and your friends will 
enjoy things to eat in your house that they cannot get 
anywhere else. 

In the work in Flour Mixtures you will find a great deal 
of scope for originality and invention. You will learn 
from the selected recipes that certain things are essential 
in every batter or dough. These have to be carefully 
measured, and their proportions correctly observed. But 
there are many more things which are non-essential, and 
it is chiefly on these that the flavor of the dish depends. 
On your ability to use the non-essentials, or the condi- 
ments, with judgment, as well as on your ability to ma- 
nipulate skillfully where manipulation affects flavor, will 
depend your success in originating delicious combina- 
tions as soon as your experience warrants your attempt- 
ing new departures. 

THE THIN BATTER 

A thin batter is one that has the consistency of heavy 
cream, or molasses, or such a fluid as will be so thick as 
barely to find its level immediately on pouring from one 
vessel to another. This mixture usually calls for equal 
parts of flour and wetting. No exact proportion of either 
of these ingredients can be given, since many liquids, 
such as milk, contain solids in suspension ui varying 
degree, and the thickening property of different brands 
of flour varies even more. Judgment has to be used in 
adding the dry materials to the wetting, so as to make a 
batter of the proper consistency; but fortunately a very 
little experience is sufficient to give a fair working knowl- 
edge. 



142 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

EXAMPLES OF THE THIN BATTER 

Griddle Cakes or Pancakes 
Ingredients. 

2 cups flour. 1 teaspoonful baking soda. 

}/2 teaspoonful salt. 2 cups sour milk, just clabbered. 

Method. Mix and sift together the dry ingredients, 
being careful to sift the soda free from lumps. Add the 
dry ingredients to the liquid, stir to a smooth batter, beat 
until bubbling, and cook by pouring a measured quantity 
at a time on a hot, slightly greased griddle. This recipe 
will make sixteen cakes. 

For your individual experimentation it will be better to 
use one-eighth of the quantity; that is, to work on the 
basis of one-quarter of a cup of flour. This will make two 
small cakes, and if you cook one of these on a greased 
griddle, and the other on a soapstone — if one is available 
— and compare the appearance, flavor, and tenderness of 
the two, you will learn something interesting. 

Sweet Milk Griddle Cakes, or Pancakes 

Substitute sweet for sour milk, and baking powder for 
soda. Two teaspoonfuls of baking powder may be allowed 
to one cup of flour. 

Compare the thickness of the batter in each case, and 
the lightness and flavor of the cakes. 

Note. The foregoing are the simplest forms of the pancake batter, 
or, one may say, the elementary forms of this mixture. From working 
with this minimum of ingredients at first (and remember, a good cook 
can obtain excellent results under these conditions) you will be much 
better able to appreciate the efi^ect of adding other substances to your 
batters. The addition of these substances may be studied in the fol- 
lowing. 



FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS: BATTERS 143 

VARIATIONS ON THE PANCAKE BATTER 

To Improve the Lightness of the Batter. Stiffly beaten 
egg, added to either of the pancake mixtures, will make 
them lighter, and this effect will be more pronounced if 
the yolks and whites are beaten separately, and the stiffly 
beaten whites added the last thing. One egg to every 
cup of flour is an ample allowance, and since an egg is in 
large part a liquid, from one-eighth to one-quarter of a 
cup of the milk may be subtracted for every egg used. 
Judgment and experience, however, will enable you to 
form rules for yourself in this matter. In the case of the 
sour-milk cakes, additional lightness may be produced by 
using baking powder in addition to the soda, part for 
part; that is, one teaspoonful of baking powder for every 
teaspoonful of soda called for by the recipe. 

To Improve the Consistency of the Cakes. The addi- 
tion of butter, or some form of shortening, to the batter 
will make the cakes tender. This shortening may be 
melted and stirred the last thing into the batter. From 
one to two tablespoonfuls to one cup of flour is an ample 
proportion. 

To Improve the Flavor of the Cakes. A small amount 
of sugar, from one teaspoonful to one tablespoonful for 
each cup of flour, will give a mellow flavor, taking off the 
rough edges, as it were, and imparting what may be 
called a '' finish " to the taste of the dish. A little molasses 
is sometimes used, but in either case you should be very 
careful not to use the sweetening in excess, or so that the 
sweet taste can be observed. The sugar should be flavor- 
ing but not sweetening. 



144 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

DERIVATIVES OF THE PANCAKE BATTER 

Cooked rice, or other cooked cereal, stirred into the 
batter cup for cup, or less, will make delicious cakes. 

Fine, sifted bread crumbs may be substituted either 
wholly or in part for the flour. In this case much more 
liquid will be needed, the amount depending on the stale- 
ness of the crumbs. 

Berry griddle cakes have huckleberries, blueberries, or 
any suitable berry stirred into the batter the last thing. 
Chopped apples could also be used, or dried fruit. 

Mashed potato, about half as much potato as pancake 
batter, makes delicious cakes, and squash used in the same 
way will be relished as a variety. 

Graham, buckwheat, and other kinds of flour will yield 
pancakes after their kind, so that a great variety of break- 
fast cakes may be constructed on the original, fundamental 
recipe. 

Fritter Batter i . This is a pancake batter made wit*h 
sweet milk, eggs — one or two to a cup of flour — only 
one teaspoonful of baking powder to a cup of flour, and 
only a trace of butter, one teaspoonful or less, to a cup of 
flour, to give smoothness. An excess of fat will cause the 
fritter to fly to pieces if fried in deep fat. This thin fritter 
batter may be used for corn fritters, or any fritter which 
is cooked in a shallow pan by the method known as saute- 
ing, or for oyster fritters, sliced apple fritters, or others 
which are merely coated with batter and where the shape 
of the food so coated is meant to be preserved. 

Waffles. This is the sweet milk batter, enriched by 
eggs, and with a tablespoonful of butter, or more, allowed 
to each cup of flour. 

French Pancakes. These are just common pancakes, 



PLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS: BATTERS 



145 



with or without eggs or butter, as you prefer, but made very 
thin, and glorified by being spread with jelly, rolled like 
a jelly-roll, and served with a sifting of powdered sugar. 

Popovers. This is a thin batter made of one cup of 
flour, one-quarter of a teaspoonful of salt, one cup of milk, 
and one egg. The first three ingredients are mixed to a 
smooth batter, then the unbeaten egg is dropped into 
the bowl and the whole is beaten vigorously with a Dover 
beater for 5 m. The batter is then poured into well- 
greased popover cups, and baked until big, inflated 
bubbles swell up over the cups. 




POPOVERS 

Popovers may be served hot and fresh from the oven, 
with butter, for breakfast; or they can be filled with 
apple sauce, through a hole punched in the top, and 
served for a luncheon dessert. 

Chopped raisins or currants may be added to the pop- 
over batter for variety. 

Note. A skillful cook can make popovers or "puffs" without the 

use of egg, which is added merely to give more tenacity to the batter. 

Popovers can be baked with gradually increasing heat, when they 



146 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

will puff up better and retain their shape better. Or they can be put 
at once into a very hot oven, when a crust will immediately form, 
and later will probably be ruptured, the mixture "popping" out at 
the sides. When baked by this method they will very likely be soft 
in the inside. (Why?) From one-half to three-quarters of an hour will be 
needed for the baking, and the oven door must not be opened for the 
first fifteen minutes — and then only enough to take a little peek, to see 
that everything is going right. 

THE THICK BATTER 

A thick batter is one that will not immediately find its 
level when poured into the baking pan, but will require 
perhaps a minute, or even more, to settle. This mixture 
usually calls for twice as much flour as wetting, though, 
as in the case of the thin batter, much will depend on the 
kind of flour used. The given proportions in any of these 
rules will have to be modified by judgment and experience. 

The thick batter is also called the drop batter, or the 
muffin batter. 

EXAMPLES OF THE THICK BATTER 
Muffins (Standard Recipe for) 

Ingredients. Two cups of flour, one-half teaspoonful 
of salt, four teaspoonfuls of baking powder, two to four 
tablespoonfuls of butter or other shortening, one cup of 
liquid, which may be three-quarters of a cup of milk or 
water, and one egg. 

Method. Sift the dry ingredients, and rub the shorten- 
ing into the mixture with the tips of the fingers; or it may 
be melted and added as in pancakes. Beat the egg, add 
the milk, then stir the dry materials into the liquid until 
a smooth batter, of the right consistency, is formed. 

This is poured or dropped by spoonfuls into greased 
muffin pans and baked in a hot oven for about 20 m., or 
until the muffins are well browned, firm to the touch of 



FLOITR MIXTUKES AND LEAVENS: BATTERS 147 

the finger, and have shrunken shghtly from the sides of 
the pans. 

The quantity given will make eight large muffins. 

Variations. Cold boiled rice, or any left-over break- 
fast cereal, may be added to the muffin batter in equal 
parts, or less, as in the case of pancakes. For good muffins, 
however, extra leaven in the shape of either eggs or bak- 
ing powder should be added to overcome the heaviness 
apt to result from the addition of the cereal. 

Graham, whole wheat, or other kinds of flour or meal 
may be used, as in pancakes, singly or in combination 
with the wheat flour. 

Berries or fruit can be added, too, or chopped nuts. 

Fritter Batter 2. This is a muffin batter made similarly 
to the fritter batter based on the pancake mixture; that 
is, one enriched by eggs, but with only a very little butter. 
This thicker fritter batter is appropriate to use where 
fritters of chopped fruit, meat, or fish are dropped by 
spoonfuls into deep fat, and irregular, " lumpy " shapes 
result. Banana fritters made in this way are particularly 
good. (See Chapter XIII, page 123.) 

Steamed Puddings. A muffin batter, sweetened with 
about half as much sugar as flour, made as plain 
or as rich as you please, and spiced, if you like it, 
with nutmeg or clove, one teaspoonful to a cup of flour, 
makes an excellent steamed pudding. Chopped apples, 
peaches, figs, raisins, or fresh berries may be added if 
desired. 

Quick Cakes. The steamed pudding mixture described 
above will, if baked, yield an astonishing variety of quick 
cakes, cakes that are made quickly and are meant to be 
eaten quickly — while hot from the oven, if you wish. 



148 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF VARIOUS INGREDIENTS, ETC., 
IN FLOUR MIXTURES 

The following studies may profitably be made, if time 
allows, either in school or at home. 

Effect of Egg in a Flour Mixture 

1. Make a thick batter, on the basis of one cup of flour. 
Omit the butter, but add sugar and fruit as directed for 
a steamed pudding. Steam for one hour in a greased mold. 

2. Make a similar batter, but add, just before the fruit 
is put in, one well-beaten egg. Steam as before. 

3. Make a third batter, to which an egg is added in the 
following manner: Separate the yolk and white. Beat 
the yolk, and add it to the milk; beat the white stiffly, and 
cut or fold it into the batter the last thing. Steam as 
before. 

Compare. Which pudding rose the highest? Which the 
next highest? How much baking powder could be de- 
ducted when beaten egg is used? How much when the 
yolk and white are beaten separately? 

Which batter was the softest? (Note in which the 
fruit sank the most.) How much flour could be added to 
make up for the '^ wetting " effect of the egg? (This 
might be the basis of a new experiment.) 

Butter and Egg Complemental in a Flour Mixture 

1. Make a thick batter, using flour, salt, baking powder, 
sugar, with milk and egg in equal parts for wetting. Mix 
as usual, and bake in greased gem pans. 

2. Make a thick batter, using the same dry ingredients 
as before, but omitting the egg and using milk alone for 
the wetting. Add to the batter melted butter in the pro- 



FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS: BATTERS 149 

portion of two tablespoonfuls for every cup of flour used, 
stir the mixture well, and bake as before. 

3. Make a batter similar to 1, but stir into this for 
the last thing melted butter in the same proportion 
used in 2. Bake as before. 

Compare. Which muffin was the tenderest? Which 
the toughest? Which rose the highest? Which rose the 
least? What ingredient contributed to the toughening 
of the mixture? What ingredient counteracted this 
effect? Which of the ingredients helped the mixture to 
rise? Which seemed to retard the rising? 

Can you estimate what proportion of butter is com- 
plemental in its effects to the effect of one egg in an ordi- 
nary flour mixture? 

Experiments in the Use of Bread Flour and 
Pastry Flour 

1. Using one of the " strong " bread flours, make one 
or two plain muffins, pancakes, or other simple mixture 
where there is not too great a variety of ingredients to 
obscure the results. 

2. Using a fine pastry flour, repeat the mixture made 
in 1, being careful to maintain the exact proportions of 
wetting, leaven, etc., used in the first case. 

Compare. Which flour made the thicker batter? Which 
made the finer-grained and tenderer muffin? Which 
muffin had the more decided flavor? 

3. Using exactly equal quantities of bread flour and 
milk, with the usual proportion of salt, make a thin bat- 
ter, beat with a Dover beater for 5 m., pour into hot iron 
gem pans, and bake as for popovers. This is one of the 
standard recipes for wheat puffs. 

4. Repeat, using whole-wheat flour. 



150 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

5. Repeat, using pastry flour. Note particularly that 
the proportion of flour and liquid in each case is to be 
equal, irrespective of the thickness of the batter. 

Compare. Which flour made the lighter puffs? Which 
the tenderer? Which formed the larger-sized and fewer, 
and which the smaller-sized and more numerous holes in 
the process of baking? What could be added to the flour 
which yielded the poorest results in this experiment to 
supply the property it lacks? 

Experiments to Aid or Corroborate Inferences 

1. Compare flour from spring and winter wheat, i. e., 
bread and pastry flour, as to 

Color — whiter or yellower. 

Texture — fine and smooth, or slightly gritty. 

Cohesion — (by squeezing a handful in the hand and noting whether 

it retains shape produced by pressure) . 
Weight vs. Volume. 
Thickening property. 

To test the thickening property, mix a given quantity 
(two tablespoonfuls will do) , of each kind of flour with an 
equal volume of water in separate small bowls. Note 
which kind makes the thicker batter. Add to the thinner 
batter sufficient flour to make it equal the other in thick- 
ness, adding only a carefully measured one-quarter tea- 
spoonful at a time. Determine from your experiment 
what proportion of the weaker flour has to be used as 
compared with the stronger. 

2. Tie one tablespoonful of each kind of flour in a five- 
inch square of cheesecloth. The mouth of these improvised 
bags should be tied tightly, but ample room must be al- 
lowed to manipulate the contents of each. Place each 
bag in about a cupful of water in a bowl, and knead the 
flour with the fingers until everything that will come 
through the cheesecloth has been worked out, and the 



FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS! BATTERS 151 

mass left in the bag feels " rubbery." Open the bags, 
and compare the residues from the two kinds of flour. 
Which is the tougher? the yellower? the larger in 
quantity? Test this substance for protein. 

3. Allow the Hquid to settle, and decant it carefully. 
What is the residue? Set this aside to dry, and compare 
the weight of each portion. 

4. Test a portion of the decanted liquid for lime. 
(What test will you use? See Chapter XII, page 104.) 

5. Test another portion for potassium. (What test 
will you use for this? See Chapter II, page 11.) 

6. Filter another portion until quite clear; then apply 
heat. What do you observe? What is your inference? 

7. Shake up a small amount of flour with twice its 
volume of ether in a test tube. Does the ether seem to 
dissolve any substance in the flour? Decant the liquid 
on to a piece of filter paper and let this stand until the 
ether evaporates. What is the nature of the stain on the 
filter paper? 

8. Treat two tablespoonfuls of flour with four or five 
times its volume of a 10 per cent salt solution, placing 
the mixture in a flask and shaking it from time to time. 
Filter, and drop some of the clear filtrate into a large 
beaker of pure water. A cloudiness, or a very slight 
milky precipitate, indicates the presence of a class of 
proteins caUed globulins. (See Chapter XI, page 97.) 
Probably only a trace of this substance wifl be discerned. 
Better results may be obtained by allowing the flour to 
remain in the salt solution for several hours, or overnight. 

TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1. The structure of the wheat grain in detail. 

2. The average composition of wheat. 



152 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

3. Varieties of wheat and their characteristics. 

4. The cultivation of wheat; the effect of time of sowing, 
of soil, climate, and other conditions. 

5. The manufacture of flour; how the composition of 
the product is affected by the process used. Various 
grades of flour; different varieties of flour, such as Gra- 
ham, whole wheat, etc. 

6. Gliadin, glutenin, and gluten. 

7. The globulins; where found in animal and vegetable 
foods. 

8. Forms other than flour into which wheat is manu- 
factured. 

9. Cereals other than wheat used in the manufacture of 
flour. 

10. The great wheat-growing regions of this and other 
countries. Imports and exports of wheat. 

11. Some great national crises in which this grain 
played an important part. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why were the sour-milk griddle cakes thicker, 
tenderer, and better risen than those made from sweet 
milk? 

2. Name the four essential ingredients in flour mix- 
tures such as those studied in this chapter. Name the 
non-essentials. 

3. State the general proportions of salt, baking powder, 
and liquid that might be used with one cup of flour to 
make a thin batter; to make a thick batter. 

4. Trace the relation of the experiments to the practical 
work of this chapter. What constituent of flour, isolated 
in your formal experiments, is most important as affecting 
the other ingredients in a batter? 

5. Enumerate in order, and illustrate by examples, the 
principles of proportion, combination of ingredients, and 
methods of mixing, gained from the whole of the work out- 
lined in this chapter. 

6. Compare flour and milk, considered as perfect foods. 



EXERCISES 



153 



EXERCISES 

The exercises on this subject may be chosen from the 
various derivatives of the thin and the thick batter. 



References 

Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XII. 
Church. Foods, Part II. 

Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, p. 52. 
Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chaps. XI and XII. 
Lassar-Cohn. Chemistry in Daily Life, Lecture IV. 
Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, see Index, 
Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. X. 
Thompson. Practical Dietetics, see Index. 
Wiley. Foods and their Adulterations, Part V. 



Wheat." 




HOW TO MEASURE DRY MATERIALS 
The cup at the right can be used either for liquids or dry materials 



CHAPTER XVI 

FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVEJ^S — continued 

PART II. DOUGHS 

THE SOFT DOUGH 

A soft dough is a mixture which is sufficiently firm to 
stand without support at the sides. It is thus distin- 
guished from a batter by possessing in a greater degree 
what the texts on physics tell us are the properties of a 
solid rather than the properties of a fluid. It does not, 
however, fulfill all the requirements of a solid as enu- 
merated in the physics texts, for not only will it not " sus- 
tain pressure without being supported laterally," but it 
will even spread a little if left quite to itself. But it will 
not, like the batter, which is a true fluid, ever find its 
own level. The soft dough usually calls for three times 
as much flour as liquid, but this proportion has to be 
modified according to the conditions stated in the rules 
for batters. 

EXAMPLES OF THE SOFT DOUGH 

Emergency Biscuit 

As its name implies, the emergency biscuit can be 
made in a time of stress, or under difficulties. It does not 
call for the use of a molding board, a rolling pin, or a 

154 



FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS: DOUGHS 155 

biscuit cutter. It takes less time to mix than any other 
batter or dough, its appearance is novel, and its flavor is 
good. 

Ingredients. Two cups of flour, four teaspoonfuls of 
baking powder, one-half teaspoonful of salt, two to four 
tablespoonfuls of butter, fresh lard, or other shortening. 
Two-thirds of a cup of liquid are required. This may be 
milk, water, or a mixture of both. Or in case of need it 
may be egg beaten in water, in the proportion of one egg 
to a pint of water. 

Method. Mix and sift the flour, salt, and baking 
powder. Chop the shortening into the dry ingredients, 
using the back of a steel-pronged fork. Do not chop it too 
fine; bits the size of half a pea will be small enough. Add 
the dry ingredients to the liquid, and mix very lightly, 
with as little manipulation as possible, until a soft dough 
is formed. The dough should be rather moist, and spongy, 
and porous. It should be so soft that it wiU spread 
if left without support at the sides, yet it should be 
so stiff that it will remain rough on top when it is 
dropped by spoonfuls into greased muffin pans. Bake 
in a hot oven. Shortly before removing from the oven 
the tops should be brushed over with milk, if this has 
not been used for the wetting, or with a mixture of 
sugar and water — two teaspoonfuls of sugar to a cup 
of water. (Why?) 

DERIVATIVES OF THE SOFT DOUGH 

Simple luncheon buns, or tea cakes to be served hot, 
may be made by adding to the biscuit mixture sugar, 
spice, fruit, either fresh or dried, nuts, chocolate — or 
even chopped, cold meat. 

The orthodox baking-powder biscuit is this same dough, 



156 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

made just a little stiff er, so that it can be rolled out on a 
molding board and cut with a biscuit cutter. 

The shortcake, in strawberry or peach time, is the 
same dough, with the maximum of shortening, rolled out 
and baked, split open while hot from the oven, spread 
with a mixture of fruit and sugar, the split halves put 
together and more fruit and sugar piled on top, and a 
blanket of whipped cream spread over all. 

The cruller, to be fried in deep fat, has beaten egg 
and milk, half and half, for the wetting, is slightly 
sweetened — perhaps two tablespoonfuls of sugar to 
a cup of flour — is spiced with cinnamon, lightly rolled, 
cut out with a cruller cutter, fried according to the 
rules for frying an uncooked mixture (see Chapter XIII, 
page 122), and dusted over with powdered sugar before 
serving. 

A plain crust for a meat pie, or for a deep-dish fruit 
pie, can be made from this dough. It can be used also for 
dumplings. (See Chapter XI, page 92.) 

THE STIFF DOUGH 

A stiff dough is one that will not cling to the sides of the 
mixing bowl, one that can be handled without adhering 
to the fingers, one that can be rolled out quite thin with- 
out sticking to the rolling pin or the molding board. The 
proportions for such a mixture depend more on the ability 
of the cook to manipulate skillfully and with a light touch 
on the rolling pin than on any given measurements, or 
than even on the kind and quality of flour used. Four 
times as much liquid as flour is often given as the propor- 
tion for this mixture, but the less flour used the crisper 
and lighter will be the dough. 



FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS I DOUGHS 157 

EXAMPLES OF THE STIFF DOUGH 

Plain Pie Crust 
Ingredients. 

1 cup flour. 3^ cup shortening. 

]/i teaspoonful salt. 34 cup water, cold as possible. 

Method. Sift flour and salt together. Chop the short- 
ening into the flour, add the liquid, and mix lightly to 
a dough. This should be so stiff as not to stick to the 
sides of the mixing bowl. Place the dough on a lightly 
floured molding board, and roll out to a thickness of one- 
fourth of an inch. Then fold one-third of this sheet of 
pastry over toward the center, fold the remaining third 
over the double sheet formed by the first fold, and roll 
the whole again until it is one-quarter of an inch thick. 
Repeat this process until the folding and rolling have been 
performed three times. Another method is to roll up 
the sheet of pastry like a jelly-roll once, and then roll 
out to a thickness of one-quarter of an inch. The disad- 
vantage of this method is that an inexperienced worker 
will find it difficult to avoid using that '' heavy hand " 
for pastry which crushes out the air caught between the 
folds, and gives a tough, heavy crust instead of one that is 
flaky, light, and crisp. 

The proportions given will make a lining for two large 
pie plates, allowing for building up the rim, or will make 
an upper and an under crust for one two-crust pie. An 
example of a cream filling for one good-sized pie is given 
below. 

Date Cream Filling 

Ingredients. Two cups of rich milk, with flour, butter, 
and salt in the proportions to make a medium white 
sauce. (See Chapter II, page 9.) Sugar (one-half cup 



168 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

or more), dates (one cupful or more), eggs (two, three, or 
four). 

Method. Make a medium white sauce on the basis of 
two cups of milk. Add the sugar, then the dates, stoned 
and chopped, and cook at a low temperature until the 
dates are softened. Add the well-beaten eggs, pour into 
the lined pie plate, and bake until the crust is brown. If 
more than two eggs are used a meringue can be made of 
two of the whites, and the remainder of the eggs used as 
described in the filling. The meringue is spread on after 
the pie is baked. It should then be placed in a cool oven 
to '' set " and brown very slightly on the top. 

Note. Pastry should be put into a very hot oven at first, and the 
heat reduced after it has browned. 

Ginger Snaps 
Ingredients. 

1 cup flour. 1 tablespoonful dry ginger. 

l^ teaspoonful salt. \i cupful shortening. 

34 cup brown sugar. 34 cupful water. 

1 teaspoonful baking powder. 

Method. Mix and sift together the flour, salt, sugar, 
baking powder, and ginger. Rub the shortening into 
the dry mixture. Add this to the liquid and mix to a 
stiff dough. Roll out very thin, cut into rounds, and bake 
for from 5-8 m. in a hot oven. 

Nut Cookies 
Ingredients. 

2 cups flour. 3^ cup shortening. 
3^2 teaspoonful salt. 1 egg. 

2 teaspoonfuls baking powder. 2 tablespoonfuls milk. 

Y2 cup sugar. ^ to 1 cupful chopped nuts. 

Method. Cream the butter, add the sugar, add the 
egg, previously well beaten, add the flour — sifted with 



FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS: DOUGHS 159 

the salt and baking powder — alternately with the milk; 
lastly stir in the nuts. Roll out moderately thin, cut 
into rounds, and bake for about 10 m. 

Hard Gingerbread 
Ingredients. 

2 cups flour. }/2 teaspoonful baking soda. 

1 tablespoonful ginger. /^ cup butter. 

J^ teaspoonful salt. Yi cup molasses. 

Method. Mix and sift the dry ingredients, heat the 
molasses gently, and stir in the butter until it is dissolved; 
then add the dry mixture. Roll thin, and spread the sheet 
of dough on the inverted bottom of a dripping pan. Bake 
in a quick oven. 

Note. The gingerbread is less apt to burn if baked on the inverted 
bottom of a pan than if baked in the ordinary way. Can you infer a 
reason for this? 



The Effect of Combining Certain Leavens, or 
Using them Singly 

1. (a) Make a thick batter, using flour, salt, and sweet 
milk. Use baking soda alone for the leaven, in the pro- 
portion of one teaspoonful to a pint of milk. Add melted 
butter the last thing, one tablespoonful to a cup of flour. 
Bake in muffin pans. (6) Make a thick batter as before, 
using sour milk, just nicely loppered instead of sweet, 
and using soda alone for the leaven, (c) Make a third 
batter, using the same ingredients as in 6, but adding as 
much baking powder as soda, (d) Make a muffin batter 
with sweet milk and baking powder in the standard 
proportions. 

2. Compare the first three muffins with the last, taken 
as a standard. Which of the muffins had a yellow tint 



160 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

and an unpleasant taste and odor? Which muffin rose 
the highest? Was this a Httle yellow ? Account for the 
yellow tint. How could it be avoided? Which muffin 
rose the least? Was this yellow? Suggest some means of 
making this muffin lighter. 

II 

The Nature of the Gas Evolved 

1. Into each of three test tubes put an equal amount of 
baking soda. Add to the three tubes, respectively, four 
times as much vinegar, sour milk, and molasses as the 
amount of soda used. (The liquids may be measured, 
allowing 1 cc. to a gram, or two tablespoonfuls to an 
ounce.) Note the height to which the effervescence 
rises in the tubes; note the speed of the action; test 
what gas is given off. 

2. To a small amount of baking powder in a test tube, 
the same kind used in your practical work, add three times 
its volume of water. Test what gas is given off. 

3. To baking soda alone add water, and heat. 

Ill 

Study of Baking Powders 

1. To a given number of grams of tartaric acid, 
H2C4H4O6, add sufficient baking soda, HNaCOa, to lib- 
erate the gas from the latter, according to the equation 

H2C4H406+2HNaC03 = Na2C4H406+2H20+2C02 
Treat the mixture with water, and note the amount of 
effervescence, first on adding cold water, and later, when 
the first action has ceased, on heating the mixture gently. 

2. To a given number of grams of cream of tartar, 



FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS! DOUGHS 161 

KHC4H4O6, add sufficient baking soda to liberate the 
gas according to the equation 

KHC4H406+HNaC03 = KNaC4H406+H20+C02 
Proceed as before, noting the amount of gas given off, 
first in the cold, then after heating slightly. 

3. Combine, as before, calcium acid phosphate, 
CaH4(P04)2, with baking soda according to the equation 

CaH4(P04)2+2HNaC03 = CaHP04+Na2HP04+2H20 

+2CO0 

Test as before what conditions are necessary for com- 
plete evolution of the gas. 

4. Combine ammonia alum, NH4AI (804)2, with baking 
soda according to the equation 

2NH4A1(S04)2 + 6HNaC03 = 2A1(0H)3 H-3Na2S04 + 
(NH4)2S04 + 6C02 

Test as before whether or not all the gas is given off in 
the cold. 

5. Estimate the weight in grams of each baking powder 
that would be required to raise one cup of flour. (It is 
supposed that 475 grams of carbon dioxide are needed to 
raise one pound of flour.) Compare the amount of bak- 
ing powder needed according to your estimate with that 
called for in your recipes. Account for the discrepancy, 
if there is one. In the commercial baking powders from 
20-25 per cent of starch is used as a '^ filler " to pre- 
vent the ingredients from acting on one another. This 
should be allowed for in your estimate. 

Note on "The Effect of Combining Diiferent Leavens," etc. 

I (a). When baking soda alone is used as a leaven there ^^all be 
an evolution of carbon dioxide from its decomposition by heat. The 
volume of gas given off will be in proportion to the amount of soda 
used, and the mixture will rise "in proportion to the volume of gas. 
But the method prescribed in this step is meant to be a warning rather 
than an example, for the residue left after the decomposition of the 



162 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

carbonate vnW discolor the flour mixture and impart an unpleasant taste 
and odor. It is hardly necessary to say that the product is unwhole- 
some, for the disagreeable effects will be a safeguard against its being 
eaten in such quantity as to do harm. 

I (6) . In the souring of milk only a very small amount of lactic acid 
is formed, from .4 per cent (when the milk will taste sour) to 1 per cent. 
It is true that other acids are usually present, but the total acidity in milk 
is seldom sufficient in amount to call for enough soda to give off enough 
carbon dioxide to raise the mixture. If the acid is present in too small 
amount to decompose the proportion of soda usually prescribed, that 
is, one teaspoonful to a pint of milk, the excess of the soda will be de- 
composed under the influence of heat, thus liberating the gas, but dis- 
coloring the mixture in the same way, though not to the same extent, 
as when soda alone is used as a leaven. (See I, (a).) 

The correct amount of soda to use with sour milk can be deter- 
mined scientifically by experimenting with a small quantity of the milk, 
adding soda to it in definite small amounts, testing with litmus after 
each addition, and when the neutral point is reached calculating the 
amount needed for the volume of milk to be used for the particular 
mixture in hand. The long patience necessary for such a process will 
dissuade most of us from attempting it, as will the knowledge that such 
painstaking would be scorned by our grandmothers, who added their 
saleratus to the milk "according to their judgment," and could unerringly 
tell by tasting the mixture whether or not they had added enough. 

I (c). Recalling what has been stated under I (h), it may be in- 
ferred that soda alone, measure ye never so wisely, will not find enough 
acid in sour milk to act upon with the result of liberating enough gas to 
raise the mixture. Therefore, in practice it is found that baking powder, 
if added in equal amount with the soda, will give the desired lightness, 
while the better flavor of the sour milk cakes will be present. 

I (d). The muffin made by this process is meant to be the standard, 
as regards the degree to which it has risen. If muffin (c) is higher this 
signifies that so much baking powder need not have been used as an aid 
to the soda and acid. 

Ill (1, 2, 3, and 4). The amount of baking powder to be used in 
any flour mixture depends on the constituents of the powder. For 
instance, tartaric acid, whose molecular weight equals 150, when com- 
bined with sodium bicarbonate will release a weight of carbon dioxide 
equal to 88. Cream of tartar, molecular weight 188, releases an amount 
of gas to equal 44. Calcium acid phosphate, molecular weight 234, will 
release gas equal to 88. Alum, 237, releases gas equal to 132. As- 
suming that a teaspoonful of any of the baking powders of commerce 
approximates in weight a teaspoonful of any other, the amount of gas 
evolved by a cream of tartar powder may be represented by 1, a tartaric 
acid by 2, a phosphate by 2, and an alum by 3. This is somewhat off- 
set by the greater stability of the cream of tartar powder, owing to its 
slowness to dissolve, so that the evolution of gas is not complete until 
heat is applied to the batter. 



FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS: DOUGHS 163 

PROBLEMS IN PRACTICAL WORK 
Boston Brown Bread 

Make a thick batter, using equal parts of corn meal, 
rye meal, and Graham flour. The wetting is to be equal 
parts of molasses and sour milk. Use soda for the leaven, 
helping it out by adding an equal volume of baking 
powder. 

Steam one hour for every cup or fraction of a cup of 
dry ingredients used. 

Problem. To estimate the amount of soda. " 

Vinegar Cake 

To one cup of water add three tablespoonfuls of cider 
vinegar. Use this mixture, or part of it, as the wetting 
for a rich muffin batter, using half as much sugar as flour 
and half as much butter as sugar. 

Problem. To estimate the amount of soda needed for 
the leaven. Commercial vinegar contains about 6 per 
cent of acetic acid. 

Soft Molasses Gingerbread 

Make a thick batter, the wetting to be three parts of 
molasses to one part of water. Use one-fourth as much 
butter as flour, and one-fourth as much ground ginger as 
butter. 

Problem. To determine the kind and quantity of 
leavening. 

Cream Puffs 

Add one-half cup of butter to one cup of boiling water, 
and cook the two together until the butter is melted. 
Add one cup of flour, sifted with the right amount of salt, 




Q 
< 



164 



FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS! DOUGHS 165 

and stir the whole quickly until a smooth ball is formed 
which will not stick to the sides of the saucepan. The 
flour must be added all at once, so that the temperature 
of the boiling mixture may be sufficiently lowered to pre- 
vent lumping. Remove the saucepan from the fire just as 
soon as a ball is formed which will not cling to the sides 
else the mixture may ''oil" and the puffs be a failure. 

While still hot, break into the saucepan, one at a time, 
as many eggs as are needed to complement the volume of 
butter used, beating each one into the mixture until it is 
thoroughly incorporated before adding the next. When 
the eggs have all been added, continue to beat the mixture 
until it will not " string " when the fork is drawn through 
it. 

Drop by spoonfuls on a baking sheet, or on the inverted 
bottom of a dripping pan, and bake the same as popovers. 

Problem. To determine the number of eggs needed. 
(See Chapter XA^ page 148.) 

Filling for Cream Puffs. ]\Iake a medium white sauce. 
Add one-half as much beaten egg as milk, and twice as 
much sugar as flour. Flavor with vanilla, lemon extract, 
fruit juice, or chocolate. 

A pastry bag can be used to fill the puffs, or one can 
be improvised by making a cornucopia of stiff paper, 
inserting the end into a small opening in the side of the 
freshly baked puffs, then pouring the filling into the cornu- 
copia and squeezing the larger end, thus forcing the mix- 
ture into the puffs. 

Note. "When the cream-puff mixture is formed, before baking, 
into a cylindrical shape by passing it through a pastry tube about an 
inch in diameter, the cakes are called " eclairs." They are filled as usual, 
and are generally spread w"ith a chocolate icing. 

The cream-puff mixture is called by French cooks the "chou" paste. 



166 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1. Different leavening agents — air, steam, carbon 
dioxide. 

2. Various classes of commercial baking powders — 
tartrate, phosphate, alum, etc. The use of egg albumen 
in baking-powder manufacture. 

3. The nature of the products formed by double de- 
composition of the substances in the baking powders of 
commerce. The different opinions regarding the whole- 
someness or unwholesomeness of the residues left in the 
dough from the different classes of baking powder. 

4. The need of some elastic and tenacious substance to 
hold the gas evolved from the baking powder or other 
leaven. 

5. Common adulterants of baking powder; of flour. 
Tests for these adulterations. The bleaching of flour. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of 
adding the dry mixture to the wetting, or conversely, the 
wetting to the dry ingredients, in mixing a batter or dough. 
In what cases might one method be more advisable; in 
what cases might the other be more advantageous to use? 

2. Why is not baking soda alone used for a leaven 
without the addition of an acid? 

3. Describe the different ways in which butter may be 
added to a batter or dough, and the effect of these various 
methods. 

4. Discuss various methods of ascertaining how much 
soda is required when used as a leaven with sour milk or 
other acid liquid. 

5. Recipes for the use of soda sometimes prescribe that 
it shall be added to the sour milk or other liquid; some- 
times that it shall be sifted in with the dry ingredients. 
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of both 
methods. 

6. What effect was produced by cooking the flour, but- 
ter, and water together in making the cream puffs? Why 



QUESTIONS 167 

was it necessary to the success of the mixture that this 
effect should be produced? (Try to conceive what would 
happen if the ingredients were mixed in the usual way.) 

7. Besides the carbon dioxide, other leavening agents, 
such as air and steam, are present in flour mixtures. 
Enumerate the mixtures in which each of these agents 
played the most important part; the mixtures in which 
each had probably the least effect. 

EXERCISES 

The exercises on this subject may be chosen from the 
various derivatives of the soft and the stiff doughs. 

References 

See References for Chapter XV, wath the addition of: 

Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. XII. 

Bulletin 13, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Chemistry. 




168 



C'HAPTER XVII 
QUICK-PROCESS BREAD 

To the Student. Good quick-process bread can be 
made in a two-hour class period. Excellent quick-process 
bread can be made at home in from three to five hours. 

The quantity of ingredients given in the following 
recipe will make one ordinary oblong loaf, but for class 
practice it is better to use only half the amount given 
and make one-half a loaf, two students baking their 
portions in one bread pan. 

You must be careful not to lose, if possible, a single 
minute of the time apportioned for each step, so that the 
loaves may be made, risen, and baked under at least ap- 
proximately the same conditions, thus facilitating a more 
correct inference regarding the effect of the different 
methods and ingredients used. 

If your teacher decides to give two lessons to bread 
making, the first might very well be spent in comparing 
the effect of making a sponge, with that of kneading what 
is called a " straight dough," and the second lesson could 
be given to studying the action of the various '' yeast 
aids " used in bread making. If you are already famihar 
with the technique of kneading, etc., the first processes 
may be skipped, and you will be interested in beginning 
at once on the '' yeast aids." 

169 



170 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

METHODS OF BREAD MAKING 
Quick-Process Bread — Sponge Method 
Ingredients. 

1 compressed yeast cake. 1 cup liquid (milk, water, or a 

1 to 2 teaspoonfuls butter. mixture of both). 

1 to 2 teaspoonfuls sugar. 3 cups flour. 
3^ teaspoonful salt. 

Note. Though three cups of flour are allowed, your bread will be 
much lighter if you try not to use all of this quantity. 

Method. Sift flour, salt, and sugar. Blend the yeast 
cake in a bowl with a little of the warm liquid until the 
mixture is smooth and free from lumps. Add the remain- 
der of the liquid, and the butter. Add flour enough to 
make a thin batter. {This step of the process should oc- 
cupy not more than 7 vi.) 

Set the bowl in a warm place, and cover it with a cloth. 
A good way to insure an even temperature is to stand 
the bowl in a pan (dish pan) of warm water, about 112° 
or 114° F., o*r in the absence of a thermometer you may 
judge sufficiently of the temperature of the water by be- 
ing able to hold your whole hand in it, up to the wrist, 
for ten seconds by the clock, and hardly a second more. 
The water must be so high as barely to escape floating 
the bowl, and the whole thing should be covered with a 
thick cloth, or the temperature kept up by the addition 
of hot water from time to time. The contents of the bowl 
will thus be maintained at a favorable temperature for 
the growth of the yeast. Allow the mixture to stand until 
it is spongy and full of holes, and has doubled in bulk. 
{This step should occupy not more than 30 m.) 

Add to the sponge flour enough to knead into a soft 
dough, and knead, at first lightly, then more thoroughly, 
on a lightly floured board until the dough is an elastic 



QUICK-PROCESS BREAD 171 

mass which will not stick either to the board or to the 
hands. {This step should occupy not more than 15 m.) 

Shape the dough into a loaf, place this in a lightly 
greased baking pan, and let it rise again in a warm place 
until it has doubled in bulk. If the pan is water-tight it 
may be allowed to stand in warm water as before. {This 
step should occupy about 20 m.) 

Bake, with gradually increasing heat, for 45 m. 

The loaf should be weighed before and after baking. 

Note. If a very thick crust is desired, the oven temperature should 
be low and the baking prolonged. This method gives a nutty-flavored 
loaf, which is both wholesomer and more delicious. 

Quick-Process Bread — Straight Dough Method 

Ingredients same as before. 

Method. Sift flour, salt, and sugar. Blend the yeast 
cake in a bowl with a little of the warm liquid until 
smooth. Add the remainder of the liquid and the butter. 
Add flour enough to make a soft dough. {This step should 
occupy not more than 7 m.) 

Knead the dough on a lightly floured board, gently at 
first, but increasing the pressure as the mass becomes less 
sticky, and continuing to knead until the dough will no 
longer adhere to the hands or the board. ( This step should 
occupy not more than 15 m.). 

Set the dough to rise in a greased bowl, placed in a pan 
of water and closely covered, as already described. Allow 
to stand until the dough has doubled in bulk. {This step 
should be completed in 30 m.) 

Remove the dough from the bowl, manipulate lightly, 
hardly more than shaping with the hands into loaves, and 
place these in greased pans to rise again in a warm place until 
once more doubled in bulk. ( This should take place in 20 m.) 

Bake as before, with gradually increasing heat, for 45 m. 



172 



PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 



Remember to weigh before and after baking. 
Compare the two loaves. Which rose the highest? 
Which has the finer and more even grain? 

Notes. A second kneading, after the bread has risen once in the 
dough stage, gives a finer gr^in, and this method should be used in 
making quick-process bread at home. 

A single compressed yeast cake will yield, during its growth, sufficient 
gas to raise eight or more loaves of bread made by the slow, or overnight 
process. Many housekeepers prefer to use a dried yeast for this method, 
and when a dried yeast is used a sponge is generally preferred to the 
"straight dough." The reason is thought to be that a sponge affords 
better conditions for a re-birth of activity, so to speak, on the part of 
the yeast cells, since these are in the spore state in the dried yeast, 
and need longer coaxing before they begin to work than is needed by 
the compressed yeast, which is merely in a resting state. Once the 
cells have come out of the spore state, however, they are very active, 
so that by the time the dough is mixed and kneaded their vigorous 
growth quickly raises the mass. 

The reverse of this appears to be the case with the compressed yeast, 
whose initial activity is very great, and in actual practice it has been 
found well to take advantage of this, and knead up the dough at once. 

Whenever the slow-process method is used it is advisable to scald 
the wetting first, to sterilize it, so as to avoid the presence of other 
organisms than the yeast. These do not have time to do harm during 
the quick process. Of course if the liquid is scalded it must be allowed 
to cool to such a temperature as will not hurt the yeast plant. 




QUICK-PROCESS BREAD 
Made by straight dough and sponge methods 



STUDY OF YEAST AIDS 

Make a loaf of quick-process bread by the second 
method, using one or two teaspoonfuls of glucose instead 
of cane sugar. 



QUICK-PROCESS BREAD 



173 



Make a similar loaf, using cane sugar, but adding to the 
dry ingredients one or two tablespoonfuls of malt flour. 
If this cannot be procured use one or two tablespoonfuls 
of malt extract, measuring this with the liquid. 

Make another loaf, working into the dough one small 
mashed potato, and using potato water for the wetting — 
provided the potato has been pared before boiling. The 
other ingredients given on page 170, including the sugar, 
should be used here. 

Compare the three loaves with the loaf made by the 
standard method, without the use of a yeast aid. Which 
is the best risen? Which has the evenest grain? Which 
the most agreeable flavor? 

If time allows, a further study of the keeping qualities 
of bread may be made, in which comparison should be 
made of loaves in which the wetting was milk, water, and 
potato water, respectively, and of loaves made with and 
without the addition of mashed potato. The loaves 
should be compared a week after baking. 




QUICK-PROCESS BREAD 
Made without and with a yeast aid 



DERIVATIVES OF THE PLAIN BREAD DOUGH 

Crumpets, sometimes called English Muffins. 
Use the proportions of flour, salt, and milk for a thin 
batter. Allow one cake of compressed yeast for every 



174 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

cup of liquid. Allow from one to two tablespoonfuls of 
butter for every cup of flour. Proceed as in the sponge 
method of making quick-process bread, and when the 
batter is well raised pour into greased muffin rings on a 
hot griddle, filling them half or three-quarters full. When 
raised to the top, turn, ring and all, with a pancake turner, 
and bake until brown on both sides. 

These muffins are generally allowed to become cold, 
then they are split or pulled apart and toasted. 

Raised Waffles. Make a thin batter as for crumpets. 
Add two eggs for every pint of milk, the yolks beaten and 
used for part of the wetting, the stiffiy-beaten whites 
folded into the mixture just before cooking. 

Raisin Bread. This is made on the basis of a thick 
batter, using one yeast cake, as before, to every cup of 
liquid. Just before the second rising add, in the following 
order, for every cup of liquid, two tablespoonfuls of butter, 
creamed; four tablespoonfuls of sugar, one well-beaten 
egg, and a half-cupful of raisins. 

Doughnuts. These are made on the basis of the soft 
dough, or the regular bread dough, but one-half cupful of 
sugar, one or two beaten eggs, and a dash of cinnamon are 
added to the foundation bread mixture. 

Roll, cut out, and fry in deep fat, like crullers. 

Coffee Cake. This is made on the basis of the dough- 
nut mixture, with the addition of a little more sugar 
and about a half-cupful more butter. Form into rather 
large rings or twists, sprinkle chopped nuts over the 
top before baking, and dust with powdered sugar be- 
fore serving. 

Election Cake. The coffee-cake mixture, with about a 
quarter-cup more butter (making from three-quarters to 
one cup of butter to three cups of flour), one-half to one 







175 



176 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

cup more sugar, perhaps an extra egg or two, and then the 
whole mass can be fairly loaded up with raisins, currants, 
chopped figs, candied citron, and spices. 

Note. All the richer derivatives of the bread dough should have 
a longer time allowed for the rising. No definite number of minutes 
can be given. The test is that the mixture shall double in bulk. These 
richer mixtures are more suited for home work. 

Plainer derivatives of the quick-process dough are the 
raised buns or rolls, which are allowed to rise in the pans 
until feather-light, after sufficient " second kneading " 
to give a fine grain; the Parker House rolls, which are made 
by rolling a sheet of the dough to half an inch in thickness, 
then spreading with butter, folding, and rolling again; 
lastly cutting out in circles, pressing a furrow across the 
middle with the handle of a wooden spoon, doubling over 
along the line of the furrow, and letting rise in the pan 
until feather-light before baking. 

Plain currant buns can be made by working in a handful 
of currants to the dough, and proceeding as for raised 
buns. 

Other variations can be experimented with as skill and 
experience are gained. 

TO JUDGE A LOAF OF BREAD 

In judging bread at county fairs. Farmers' Institute 
exhibits, or school contests, a score card should be used. 
This enumerates the various points to be observed in 
judging a loaf, and the number of credits given for each 
point. Many schools and colleges get up their own score 
cards, so that there is a great deal of variety; but though 
in the details there may be a lack of correspondence, there 
is general agreement in broadly judging every loaf on the 
three great essentials of flavor, appearance, and texture. 



QUICK-PROCESS BREAD 177 



SAMPLE SCORE CARDS 

Bread Score Card I 

Flavor 

Lightness 

Grain and texture 

Crust — color, depth, texture 1^ 

Crumb — color, moisture 10 

Shape and size 

Total 100 

Bread Score Card II 

171 ...... 20 

Flavor 

Doughiness and moisture 

Texture and Grain ^0 

Lightness 

Sweetness 

Color 

Crust 

Shape and size 

Total 100 



Bread Score Card III 

General Appearance ^^ 

Texture 

Color 

Elasticity of crumb |^ 

Flavor 

Odor ....:. -i^ 

Total 100 



178 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

Further Study of Yeast 

I 

Conditions which Affect the Growth of Yeast 

Blend one-half a compressed yeast cake with a small 
amount of water, and add this to one cupful of a thin 
batter, made of equal parts of flour and water. Divide 
into four parts — A, B, C, and D. 

1. Freeze A by surrounding the vessel that holds it with 
a mixture of equal parts of finely chopped ice and coarse 
salt. After the batter has been frozen hard for ten or 
more minutes, allow it to thaw; then set the vessel in a 
warm place, or place it in warm water, as in the recipes 
for bread, and see whether the yeast plant has retained 
its vitality. 

2. Boil part B for 1 m., allow it to cool, place in a favor- 
able temperature as before, and note whether or not the 
life of the plant has been destroyed by boiling. 

3. Add to C one teaspoonful of common salt, and place 
the mixture in a favorable temperature for growth. 

4. Keep D for a control test under favorable conditions 
from the start. Note in each case the amount of gas, if 
any, given off. 

II 

By-product of the Growth of Yeast 

Fill a wide-mouthed bottle with a mixture of cane 
sugar and water, or glucose syrup and water, in the pro- 
portion of two tablespoonfuls of the syrup (or sugar) to 
a pint of water. Add one-quarter of a yeast cake, cover 
the bottle with a saucer, or a soup plate, and invert it. 



QUICK-PROCESS BREAD 179 

When the gas has displaced the Hquid in the bottle (it 
may take several hours, or overnight), test it by pouring 
some into a beaker filled with lime water, by pouring 
some on a Hghted candle, etc. 

Ill 

Comparison of Dried and Compressed Yeast 

Make a thin batter, using one cupful each of flour and 
water. Divide into two parts, A and B. Blend with A 
one-eighth cake of compressed yeast; blend with B 
one-eighth cake of dried yeast, previously softened in 
water. Place each mixture in a 100 cc. beaker, set these 
in a warm place, and observe: (a) in which the gas was 
first generated; (b) in which the action continued longest; 
(c) in which the total amount of gas generated was the 
greatest — as evidenced by the height to which the bubbles 
rose in the beaker. 

TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1. Bacteria, yeasts, and molds; where found, how de- 
veloped; various results of their life activities. 

2. ''Wild" yeasts; their action on food; how to obtain 
and utilize them. The " barms," the salt-rising breads, 
the ancient leavens. 

3. Different phases of the life of the yeast plant — the 
active or growing state, the resting state, the dormant or 
spore state. 

4. Cultivated yeasts — brewer's yeast, dried yeast, com- 
pressed yeast; methods of manufacturing these. 

5. Fermented milk, koumiss, kephir, matzoon. 

6. The chemical and physical changes in the making of 
bread ; the chemical and physical changes in the baking of 
bread. 

7. Varieties of bread — whole wheat, Graham, Vienna, 
^tc, Aerated bread. 



18G PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

8. Breads of various countries — Danish and Norwegian 
breads, pumpernickel and other rye breads. 

9. Antiquity of bread making; bread making in Egypt, 
in Rome, etc. 

10. Historical associations of bread; the bakers gilds; 
the bread riots; laws regarding the making and sale of 
bread. 

11. The bread-making industry of today. Sanitation 
of bakeries. Delivery conditions. Cost of bakers' as 
compared with home-made bread. 

12. Adulterations of bread. Pure Food laws relating 
to bread. 

13. Purchase of flour — in barrels, in bags, in small sacks, 
in quantities of one or more pounds. 

14. Milling processes; the great flour mills and the 
characteristics of the flour produced by each. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Compare the nutritive value of a helping of cereal 
with that of a slice of bread. (See charts.) 

2. Which cereals can be successfully used for bread 
making and which cannot? Why? 

3. Why is it not best to use pastry flour in bread 
making? 

4. Criticise the bread score cards on page 177. Con- 
struct a score card that might, in your judgment, be a 
better guide in judging bread. 

5. Name some labor-saving devices that are used in 
bread making. Discuss their value. 

6. Compare the action of baking powder and of yeast 
in leavening flour mixtures. 

7. Compare the economy of aerated and of yeast-raised 
bread. What is the proof that a certain amount of flour 
is lost in the latter process? To what is due the difference 
in flavor of the two kinds of bread? 

8. Is more yeast, that is, a larger number of yeast cells, 
actually present in quick-process bread than in slow 
process? 

9. Why is a smaller proportion of salt used in bread 




< 

Pi 
m 

I 

H 

O 

a 



181 



182 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

making than in the other flour mixtures? Suggest a 
method of adding salt in the process of bread making that 
will minimize its effect on the growth of the yeast. 

EXERCISES 

1. The making of whole- wheat bread. 
The other exercises on this subject may be chosen from 
the variations on the bread dough. 

References 

See references for Chapter XV, with the addition of 

Conn. Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home. 
Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. XI. 

Bulletins 67, 101, 126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Office of Experi- 
ment Stations, and Farmers' Bulletin 112. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

SUGAR 

To the Student. If you refer to the charts, page 225, 
you will find that cane sugar is pure carbohydrate, mixed 
with no trace of any other food principle. It is thus the 
one food which may be said to be chemically pure. As 
a food, sugar has fallen into some disrepute, owing to the 
unwholesome effects following over-indulgence in sweets. 
Since, however, it is much easier to over-eat of expensive 
candies and bonbons, done up in costly boxes, than it is 
to over-eat of the purer home-made varieties, some recipes 
will be given in this chapter for simple candy that may 
be eaten without hurt, provided it is taken at the right 
time and in proper quantity. Incidentally there are many 
interesting principles to be learned regarding the cookery 
of sugar, for notwithstanding the certainty of its chemical 
composition it is one of the most uncertain substances to 
work with, and is always doing surprising things in the 
saucepans. An experienced cook says, " It has ways 
that are past finding out; it is so easily affected by the 
atmosphere." * 

STUDY OF SUGAR IN COOKING 

Peanut Brittle 

Ingredients. Equal parts of sugar and peanuts, roasted, 
shelled, and chopped. 

Method. Cook the sugar over the fire in a shallow pan 

183 



184 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

until it turns into a clear, brown liquid. Stir it judiciously 
from the bottom up, while cooking. The lumps which 
will form may be pressed out with the back of the spoon 
— they should not cause uneasiness, since they are only 
one of the odd happenings that may be expected when 
dealing with sugar. 

When the whole is melted to a clear, golden brown the 
peanuts should be added; the mixture is then stirred to- 
gether and poured on a plate or a marble slab. A smooth 
plate or a slab need not be greased, as the peanut brittle 
will slip off in one sheet when cold. It may then be broken 
into pieces for eating. 

Compare the peanut brittle with cane sugar as to sweet- 
ness, flavor, and texture. Save a portion of it for a test 
to be made later. 

The basis for individual class work may be from one- 
quarter to one-half cup of sugar. 

Almond Rock 

The sugar is melted as for peanut brittle. Shelled and 
blanched almonds are placed in rows on a dish, lightly 
stuck on by drops of the melted sugar just as it begins 
to turn brown. The cooking of the sugar is continued 
until it is as brown as for peanut brittle; it is then poured 
over the almonds. , 

Glace Nuts 

Halves of shelled walnuts are dipped into sugar melted 
as for peanut brittle, but the nuts should be dipped before 
the sugar browns, or at farthest when it is barely begin- 
ning to turn. The dipped nuts are placed one by one 
on a very lightly greased slab or plate, until the sugar 
coating is hard. This confection should be made in 



SUGAR 185 

dry, clear weather. It should be used within two or 
three days at the utmost, since it is easily affected by 
the atmosphere. 

Vanilla Fudge 

Ingredients. Sugar and milk, in the proportions of 
three to one. A small amount of butter, perhaps one 
teaspoonful to every cup of sugar. Vanilla extract, or 
a bit of vanilla bean. 

Method. Melt the butter in the bottom of the sauce- 
pan. Add the milk and sugar, stir until the mixture 
boils, then cook for about 15 m. without stirring. Remove 
from fire, add flavoring extract, beat until creamy, pour 
into lightly greased pans, and cut into squares with a 
greased knife as soon as it is hard enough. If vanilla bean 
is used for flavoring it should first be boiled in the milk for 
a few minutes. Chopped nuts can be added just before 
beating, if desired. Save a portion for a test to be made 
later. 

Compare with cane sugar as to sweetness, fiavor, 
texture. 

Basis for class work : one-half to one cup of milk. Less 
time should be allowed for cooking a small quantity. 
Why? 

Velvet Molasses Candy 

Ingredients. Molasses and water in equal parts. 
Three times as much sugar as water, and one-fourth as 
much vinegar as water. About a tablespoonful of butter 
to every cup of sugar. 

Method. First melt the butter in the saucepan, then 
add all the other ingredients, and boil until a spoonful of 
the mixture will form a firm ball when dropped into cold 



186 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

water. Pour into a greased pan, and when cool enough to 
handle pull until white and firm. Save a portion for a 
test to be made later. 

Compare with cane sugar as to sweetness, flavor, 
texture. 

Basis for class work: one-half to one cup of sugar. 

Fondants 

Ingredients. Sugar, water, and cream of tartar or 
some acid substance. About twice as much sugar as 
water is a good proportion. Allow one-eighth of a tea- 
spoonful of cream of tartar for two cups of sugar. 

Method. Mix the sugar, water, and cream of tartar 
and let them stand for half an hour, if time permits. 
Put on to boil in an agate or other smooth-lined saucepan, 
and stir gently until the sugar is dissolved. Then cease the 
stirring, and from time to time wipe off with a damp cloth 
any crystals of sugar that have been thrown up against 
the sides of saucepan. A strip of cheesecloth, folded 
around the tines of a fork, will do this very nicely. Let 
the mixture boil for 10 m.; then try whether a spoonful 
dropped into cold water will form a soft ball. Continue to 
cook until the syrup has reached this stage; then pour it 
out on a shallow dish to cool quickly. In cooling it will 
harden so that the pressure of a finger-tip on the surface 
will make a dent, and when this stage is reached the mass 
should be worked from the edges to the center with a 
spatula until it is a white, glossy, creamy paste. As it 
hardens it can be kneaded like dough until firm. This 
can be used as a filling for bonbons, for chocolate creams, 
for creamed walnuts, nut bars, etc. 

The fondant can be packed into a jar, covered with 
glazed paper, and kept in the refrigerator for future use. 



SUGAR 187 

If well made it should be white, glossy, and satiny in 
appearance, and should feel as smooth as lard when a bit 
is rubbed between thumb and forefinger. If it has 
" grained " it can be boiled over again in a small amount 
of water, and this process can be repeated, so long as the 
sugar does not burn, without hurt to the result other than 
that the fondant will turn slightly yellow. 

Compare the relative sweetness of the fondant, the 
vanilla fudge, and the cane sugar. Compare the texture 
of fondant and cane sugar. Save a portion for a later test. 

Experiments to Aid or Confirm Inferences 

I 
Comparison of Cane Sugar and Glucose 

1. Compare the properties of cane sugar and commercial 
glucose as follows: 

(a) Which has the more crystalline structure? 
{h) Which is the easier dissolved in water? 
(c) Which has the sweeter taste? (Note the relation 
between solubility and flavor in this and other substances.) 

2. Set aside the solutions made in h for a few days to 
see whether crystallization will take place. Note shape 
and size of crystals where these are formed. 

3. Determine what proportion of cane sugar will be 
held in solution by cold water, what proportion by boil- 
ing water. Use at least a half-cupful of water in each case. 

4. Apply Trommer's test to solutions of cane sugar and 
glucose in the following manner. Place in two test tubes, 
A and B, about half an inch of sodium hydroxide solution. 
Add one drop of a solution of copper sulphate. Shake a 
little. Note change that has taken place. What sub- 
stance is formed? Add to the two test tubes, respectively, 



188 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

about a half-inch of (a) the cane sugar solution; (6) the 
solution of glucose, made in 1-6. By means of a paper 
strip, hold both test tubes at the same time over the gas 
flame and heat gently until one of the solutions just 
begins to change slightly in color. Remove from heat. 
You will find that the color will continue to change from 
the effect of the retained heat. What salt of copper is now 
present? What agent has caused the reduction? 

II 

Effect on Cane Sugar of Dry Heat 

1. Brown a quarter-cupful of cane sugar as for making 
peanut brittle. As soon as a clear, golden-brown liquid 
is formed, pour on it, quickly and all at once, a quarter- 
cupful of water. Drain off the liquid immediately. Taste 
it. Taste the less soluble mass. The liquid, which should 
be a deep brown color, is caramel; the golden mass is 
known as barley sugar. Compare the sweetness of the 
barley sugar with that of cane sugar. Dissolve some of it 
in water, and set it aside for a day or two to see whether 
re-crystallization will take place. Have you any reason 
to infer that a chemical change has taken place in the cane 
sugar through the agency of heat? 

Dissolve some of the peanut brittle in hot water and 
see whether it re-crystallizes from solution; whether the 
caramel present can be separated to any extent from the 
barley sugar. 

Ill 

Effect of Water and Heat 

1. Boil a solution of one part cane sugar and three parts 
water in a flask or covered vessel for from one-half to one 



SUGAR 189 

hour, keeping up the quantity of water. Apply Trom- 
mer's test to small portions at the end of each twenty- 
minute period until a reducing sugar is found to be 
present. 

2. Apply Trommer's test to a portion of the vanilla 

fudge. 

IV 
Effect of Water, Heat, and Acid 

1. Boil a solution of one part cane sugar and three parts 
water as in III-l, after the addition of one-tenth of its 
volume of sulphuric acid. After 15 m. boiling, apply 
Trommer's test to small portions, and continue to test, 
at intervals of 5 m., until a reducing sugar is found to be 
present. 

2. Apply Trommer's test to solutions of the velvet 
molasses candy and the fondant. 

TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1. The sources of commercial sugar — the sugar cane, 
the sugar maple, the beet, etc. 

2. The various steps in the manufacture of sugar; the 
different grades of sugar that result — brown, white, lump, 
powdered, etc. 

3. The by-products of the manufacture of sugar, e. g., 
molasses. 

4. Classification of sugars — the monosaccharids or 
simple sugars; the disaccharids. 

5. Sugar as an antiseptic. Sugar as an intestinal 
irritant. 

6. Amount of sugar permitted in the diet. Factors 
which influence the digestion and assimilation of sugar. 

7. Sugar in the diet of training; during physical exer- 
tion such as mountain climbing; in the army during long 
marches, etc. 



190 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

8. Chemical changes in the cooking of sugar. 

9. Sugar vs. fat as a source of energy. 

10. Laws relating to the manufacture, adulteration, 
and sale of sugar. Imports and exports of sugar, etc. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Classify, according to their chemical composition, 
the following sugars and saccharine substances: cane 
sugar, milk sugar, maple sugar, honey, molasses. 

2. Compare the cost of home-made and commercial 
candies of the same class, including the cost of fuel and 
labor for the home-made. 

3. Discuss methods of apportioning the daily allowance 
of sugar in the diet so as to secure the wholesomest results. 

4. Name familiar examples of the use of sugar as an 
antiseptic. 

5. Compare sugar, fat, and gelatine as protein sparers. 

6. Compare sugar, fat, and gelatine as energy givers. 

7. Compare starch and sugar as protein sparers and 
energy givers. 

8. Trace the connection between the experiments and 
the practical work of this chapter. 

References 

Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chaps. XIV and XV. 
Chittenden. The Nutrition of Man, Chap. II, and pp. 290-1. (Ed- 

1907.) 
Church. Food, Part I. 

Conn. Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home, see Index. 
Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chap IV. 
Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chap. XV. 
Lassar-Cohn. Chemistry in Daily Life, Lecture IV. 
Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, see Index. 
Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. V. 
Thompson. Practical Dietetics, see Index. 
Wiley. Koods and Food Adulterants, Part IX. 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 93, U. S. Department of Agriculture: Sugar 

as Food. 



CHAPTER XIX 
BEVERAGES 

To the Student. Coffee and tea contain a certain 
nerve-stimulating substance called caffeine. A similar 
substance, but one that is much milder in its action, theo- 
bromine, is found in cocoa and chocolate. These com- 
pounds may be regarded as quite near relatives — if not 
exactly sisters, surely first cousins — of that Borgian fam- 
ily which includes nicotine, strychnine, morphine, etc., in 
that they may all be traced back to the common ances- 
try of what chemists call the nitrogen heterocycles. This 
is something that need not trouble you until you study 
organic chemistry. It is sufficient for today to know that 
caffeine, as well as strychnine, if taken at the wrong time, 
or in excessive quantity, may work as a mischief-maker in 
the system. It is the opinion of many persons that the 
wrong time to take coffee or tea (the caffeine-containing 
beverages) is any day before one's thirtieth birthday, and 
that excessive quantity is anything more than one cup at 
breakfast time. But this one cup of coffee, if well made, 
is tolerated by most persons of adult age. 

Besides the nerve-stimulants just mentioned, tea, coffee, 
and chocolate contain tannin, an astringent substance 
which is found in most fruits and vegetables. 

In the methods of making coffee that follow, the same 
brand of coffee should be used, since it will be inter- 
esting to note the different results from different ways 
of making. 

191 



192 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

FOUR WAYS OF MAKING COFFEE 
I. Cold-Process Coflfee 

Proportions. Four ounces of coffee to one pint of 
water. 

Method. Mix the coffee thoroughly with cold water. 
Let it stand eight to ten hours, or overnight. Decant 
the liquid carefully, heat until it boils, and serve. 

Coffee made in this way is said to be less hurtful than 
when made by the more usual methods. 

2. Boiled Coflfee with Cold Water 

Proportions. Two ounces of coffee to one pint of water. 

Method. Mix one or two spoonfuls of beaten egg with 
one-half cup of cold water — or one or two crushed egg- 
shells may be substituted for the beaten egg. (See notes 
following recipes.) Add the remainder of the water, and 
heat very slowly to boiling. Let boil for 3 m.; then draw 
aside from the heat and allow to settle for 5 m. before 
serving. 

3. Boiled Coflfee with Boiling Water 

Proportions. Two ounces of coffee to one pint of water. 

Method. Mix the dry coffee with beaten egg and cold 
water as in 2. Add freshly boiling water, let it boil for 
5 m., draw aside to settle as in 2, and serve. 

4. Filtered or " Drip " Coflfee 

Proportions. Four ounces of coffee to one pint of water. 

Method. Place the coffee in the strainer, or the upper 
part of the coffeepot. Stand the coffeepot in a pan of 
hot water. Add the boiling water to the coffee, one- 
fourth at a time, at intervals of 1 m. Cover the pot be- 



BEVERAGES 193 

tween the additions of water. The coffee, if not strong 
enough, may be re-filtered. 

This is sometimes called French coffee, and is served 
for after-dinner coffee. A better result may be obtained 
by the use of a percolater, where the boiling water in the 
lower part of the pot is made to squirt out over the ground 
coffee in the upper part, filter through it, and drip into 
the lower part again, and the process may be kept up 
until the coffee is the desired strength without any fear 
that it will grow cold. 

Notes. It is said that the flavor of the beverage is improved if 
the dry, ground coffee is heated in the oven for a few minutes before 
adding the water. 

A very small amount of salt, one-quarter teaspoonful to a cup of 
water, is also said to improve very much the flavor of the coffee. The 
taste of the salt will not be apparent in so small quantity. 

One raw egg is sufficient to clear one cup of ground coffee. Clean 
eggshells, for the sake of the albumen which adheres to them, may be 
substituted for the egg — when these are at hand — for the sake of 
economy. Or a square inch of isinglass, or dried fish skin, or one of 
the patent coffee settlers, can also be substituted for the egg. Or a 
skillful coffee maker can make good clear coffee without any such aid. 

A perfectly clean coffeepot, free from the odor of the coffee of the 
day before, is another important factor in good coffee making. To 
this end, after scrupulous washing of the pot it should be put away on 
the shelf with the lid open until needed for use. 

TEA 

Freshly boiling water is invariably prescribed for mak- 
ing tea, but since there is often carelessness in carrying 
out this direction, it may be well to state that by freshly 
boiling is meant water that has just boiled for the first 
time, not water that has continued to boil for perhaps 
half an hour, nor water that has boiled and cooled and 
been boiled again for several times. And by freshly hoil- 
ing is meant water that is actually boiling at the time of 
tea-making, not water that has been boiling a few minutes 
ago and been set aside. 



194 



PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 



To Make Tea 

Method I. Allow one rounded teaspoonful of tea for 
every cup of water. Put the tea into the teapot, pour on 
the freshly boiling water, and set the pot where the bever- 
age will keep hot, but not boil, for 5 m. — no longer. It 
can then be served from the pot, or strained from the 
leaves into a clean, thoroughly heated pot, since if the 
serving time is prolonged the tea acquires a bitter taste 
from standing on the leaves. 




A CUP OF TEA 



Method 2. Proceed as before, and after the hot water 
has been added to the tea, cover the pot closely with a 
tea cozy, and let it stand for 10 m. to '' draw " before 
serving. 

Method 3. Put the tea into a tea ball, or one of the 
open tea strainers, pour the water into the cup, and dip the 
ball up and down in the water until the color indicates 
the strength desired. If a tea strainer is used the strainer 
is held over each cup and the water poured through. 

Compare the flavor of the tea made in different ways. 



BEVERAGES 195 



Cocoa I 



Ingredients. Cocoa, sugar, water, salt, and milk. 

Proportions. Twice as much sugar as cocoa, twice as 
much water as sugar, one tablespoonful of cocoa to every 
cup of milk, one-quarter teaspoonful of salt to every cup 
of milk. When more than a pint of cocoa is to be made, 
the proportion of water should be diminished, no more 
being required than will make a paste after a few minutes' 
boiling. 

Method. Cook the cocoa, sugar, water, and salt, 
stirring constantly, until the spoon leaves a track in the 
mixture. Add the milk, and let the whole boil for a 
minute. Decrease the temperature, and beat the mix- 
ture with a Dover beater until a thick froth forms 
on the top. 

Make on the basis of one tablespoonful of cocoa. 

Cocoa II 

Proceed as before, omitting the salt, and omitting the 
final beating. Compare the flavor of the two. 

Cocoa III 

Proceed by the directions on the can of cocoa. 

Compare the flavor of the cocoa made by the different 
methods, and account for the differences. Compare the 
cost. Decide which method you prefer. It is very much 
a matter of individual taste. 

Note. Cream may be substituted for one-half the milk in making 
cocoa, if it is desired to enrich it. 



196 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

Spanish Chocolate I 

Ingredients. Chocolate, sugar, water, salt, milk, eggs. 

Proportions. Twice as much sugar as chocolate. As 
much water as sugar. One cup of milk and one egg to 
every ounce of chocolate. One-quarter of a teaspoonful 
of salt to every cup of milk. 

Method. Break the chocolate into little bits and cook 
with the water, sugar, and salt until a paste is formed as 
in Cocoa I. Add the milk, let the whole boil for a minute, 
have ready the eggs, stiffly beaten, and turn them quickly 
into the hot chocolate, beating vigorously all the while 
with a Dover beater. This dish will be more successful 
if one person turns in the eggs while the other beats, but 
a rapid worker can manage both operations. The essen- 
tial point is that the eggs shall be beaten into the mixture 
before they have time to coagulate in lumps. The 
chocolate when finished should be very thick but smooth 
in consistency. 

Make on the basis of two squares (ounces) of chocolate. 

Spanish Chocolate II 

Ingredients and proportions the same as before. 
Method the same, except that in this case the chocolate 
is to be quickly poured on to the beaten eggs in a bowl, 
while the mixture is vigorousl}^ beaten as before with a 
Dover beater. 

Compare the flavor of the two. Which do you like 
best? Account for the difference. (Recall the conclusions 
you formed regarding the effect of initial high temperature 
on eggs. Chapter V, page 34). In which method of making 
the Spanish chocolate is it easier to avoid curdling the 
eggs? 



BEVERAGES 197 

FRUIT DRINKS 

Fruit Punch 

Ingredients and method. Equal parts of shredded 
pineapple, strawberries, and red currants. Cook until 
soft in half their volume of water, strain, sweeten, and 
when cold dilute to taste with water or Apollinaris, and 
serve in glasses half filled with shaved ice. 

Apple Tea 

Ingredients. Ten sour apples, two quarts of water* 
four tablespoonfuls of sago, the juice of two lemons; 
sugar to taste — or from one to two cups of sugar. 

Method. Wipe and chop the apples, and cook in 
water until tender. Strain, add the sago, cook again until 
slightly thickened, sweeten, chill, add lemon juice, and 



serve. 



Tea Punch 



Ingredients. 

}/2 cup boiling water. 3^ cup lemon juice. 

1 cup sugar. 1 cup orange juice. 

^ cup dry tea. 1 cup grated pineapple. 

1 cup strawberry pulp. 1 quart ice water. ^ 

Method. Mix the ingredients in the order given. 
Let stand for 15-20 m., strain, chill, and serve 
in tall glasses with a candied cherry in each glass. 
Or the mixture may be poured over a block of ice 
in a punch bowl and a quart of Apollinaris added be- 
fore serving. 



198 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

Experiments to Aid or Confirm Inferences 

Tannin: Its Presence and its Effects 

I 

Presence of Tannin 

Into eight test tubes pour about one inch of the follow- 
ing, respectively: 

Grape juice. 

Apple juice or cider, or cider vinegar. 

Blackberry juice, diluted with water. 

Infusion of tea in cold water) the solutions to be of equal 

Infusion of tea in hot water ) strength. 

Infusion of coffee in cold water ) the solutions to be of equal 

Infusion of coffee in hot water ) strength. 

Solution of cocoa. 

Add to each test tube a few drops of a solution of iron 
chloride or any soluble salt of iron. A black color or 
precipitate indicates the presence of tannin. 

II 

Effect of Tannin 

Into SIX test tubes pour about an inch of the following, 
respectively : 

Hydrated and dissolved gelatine. A solution of pepsin. 
White of egg. A solution of pancreatine. 

A solution of Liebig's extract. Some clear saliva. 

Add to each test tube a few drops of a strong solution 
of tannin. Note in which cases, and to what extent, 
precipitation takes place. Determine by the use of 
Millon's reagent whether protein bodies are present in 
the solutions of pepsin and pancreatine, and in the saliva. 
Millon's reagent is the test used to demonstrate the 
presence of small amounts of proteid in any substance, 



QUESTIONS 199 

TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 

1. The history of tea, coffee, and chocolate. 

2. The chief varieties of coffee; the great coffee planta- 
tions of the world; the manufacturing processes used in 
the preparation of coffee for the market. 

3. The chief tea-producing countries. The effect on 
tea of climate, soil, and method of manufacture. 

4. Cocoa, and the by-products of its manufacture — 
cocoa shells, cocoa butter, etc. 

5. The chemical composition of coffee, tea, and choco- 
late. The difference between the cocoa and chocolate of 
commerce. 

6. The effect on digestion of tea, coffee, and cocoa. 
The effect of these beverages on the nerves. 

7. Common adulterants of tea, coffee, and chocolate. 
Food laws relating to these substances. 

8. Races and nations which favor the use of each of the 
beverages studied. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Which of the substances tested in Experiment I do 
you infer contains the largest amount of tannin? Which 
the smallest? 

2. What fallacy is involved in prohibiting the use of tea 
and coffee and permitting the use of grape juice, black- 
berries, etc., in the diet? 

3. On what grounds might tea and coffee be forbidden 
and other foods containing tannin be allowed? 

4. Has the method of making tea and coffee any effect 
on the amount of tannin extracted? 

5. Which would be easier of digestion, a gelatine jelly 
flavored with coffee, or one flavored with orange juice? 
Why? What is the effect of tannin on protein foods? 
on the digestive juices? 

6. Compare the effect of drinking tea or coffee at the 
beginning of a meal, during the meal, or at its close. 

7. What do you think was the cause of the discoloration 
of the potato in the work of Chapter II, page 10? 



200 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 



References 

Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XXII. 

Church. Food, Part IV. 

Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chap. XVIII. 

Lassar-Cohn. Chemistry in Daily Life, see Index. 

Lusk. The Science of Nutrition, see Index. 

Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. XIV. 

Thompson. Food and Dietetics, see Index. 



CHAPTER XX 
CAKES, PIES, AND PtJDDINGS 

To the Student. It has been said that there is really 
no need to include a lesson on cake making in a formal 
course of instruction, for whether they are taught or not, 
girls will naturally make cake, and the principles involved 
can be taught by means of those more prosaic and every- 
day dishes which are far more important in the daily diet. 

This lesson, then, may be omitted, or if it is included 
may be used as an exercise in originality, since no recipe, 
but general instructions only, will be given. 

There are two great classes of cakes — those made with 
butter or other shortening, and those made without. The 
first is the more important class, in that it is the larger, 
and it includes the greater variety. The standard or 
type form of this class, from which ever so many other 
cakes can be derived, is the old-fashioned one called the 
'' one-two-three-four " cake, so named because one (part) 
of butter, two of sugar, three of flour, and four eggs are 
called for in the orthodox recipe. Experienced cake 
makers have called this the " mother of cakes." 

A diagrammatic representation of this standard mixture 
is given on page 202. This shows how variety may be intro- 
duced, and it illustrates the wide scope for individual 
taste that is afforded in the various kinds and amounts of 
ingredients that may be used. 

An explanation of the diagram will follow. 

Note. For every cup of nuts, when nuts are used, one-quarter 
teaspoonful of salt should be added to the cake mixture. This will 

201 



202 



PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 



bring out the flavor of the nuts in such a way as greatly to add to the 
deliciousness of the cake. 

Likewise, when nuts are used, one-quarter cup of butter should be 
subtracted from the maximum amount, since nuts are rich in fat, and 
an excess of this will cause the cake to fall. 

When chocolate is used, one-half ounce of butter should be subtracted 
from the maximum amount, since chocolate contains nearly half its 
weight of fat. 










^ tupsoLdcia 



yA"fep.oLSattf 




DIAGRAM OF CAKE MAKING 



EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM 

The three cups of flour are here taken as the standard 
and unalterable quantity, since the proportion of all the 
other ingredients may vary according to circumstances^ 



CAKES, PIES, AND PUDDINGS 203 

Even the amount of flour may vary, according to its 
thickening property, as shown in the work in preceding 
chapters. But it is in this case assumed to be constant, 
and all the other ingredients are allowed for on the basis 
of this quantity. 

A question mark follows the prescribed amount of 
salt, since if salted butter is used this may be omitted or 
lessened. 

Extending from the angles of the hexagon to right and 
left are the minimum and maximum quantities of eggs, 
milk, butter, and sugar. The eggs and milk, taken to- 
gether, should equal one and one-half cups of liquid, ac- 
cording to the rules for the thick batter given on page 146 ; 
thus, the smaller the number of eggs the larger will be 
the amount of milk used. The baking powder will simi- 
larly be used in larger quantity if the number of eggs 
is fewer. 

The optional ingredients, given at the upper part of the 
figure, afford opportunity for still greater variety accord- 
ing to the quantity used and the various combinations 
that may be made, such as nuts and spice, nuts and 
chocolate, nuts and fruit, or nuts and spice and fruit, or 
nuts and chocolate and fruit. Where a combination of 
two or more of these is used the volume of the mixture had 
better not exceed two cups. 

Standard Method of Mixing 

Cream the butter until it is white and satiny and may 
be beaten with a spoon. Add the sugar, and mix this in 
thoroughly. Add the stiffly-beaten eggs, then the flour 
(sifted with the salt and baking powder), alternately 
with the milk, being careful to add only a very little of 



204 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

the milk at a time, so as to avoid curdling the batter 
and spoiling the grain of the cake. 

VARIETIES IN METHODS OF MIXING 

Eggs may be added by: 

1. Beating stiff, adding to the milk, and using the 
mixture for wetting. 

2. Adding the beaten yolks to the creamed butter and 
sugar; adding the stiffly-beaten whites the last thing to 
the batter. 

3. Adding the whole egg, unbeaten, to the creamed 
butter and sugar. 

Butter may be added by: 

1. Rubbing it into the flour until thoroughly well 
mixed. 

2. Melting, and adding it the last thing to the batter. 

3. Chopping it lightly into the dry mixture. 
Fruit may be added by: 

1. Flouring the fruit and adding it the last thing to the 
batter, or just before the stiffly-beaten whites of eggs, if 
eggs are added by Method 2. 

2. Adding the fruit directly to the creamed butter, and 
mixing well. 

3. Heating the fruit until well plumped up, and add- 
ing as in 1. 

Other varieties in the general method are: (1) adding 
the baking powder by stirring it into the batter just 
before this goes into the baking pan; (2) putting all the 
ingredients together into a bowl, the butter being just 
softened, and beating them all up at once until a fine- 
textured batter results. This last method needs for 
success either a patent cake mixer or a strong arm. 



CAKES, PIES, AND PUDDINGS 205 

PIES 

General Rules for Making Pies 

1. When the filling of the pie is uncooked, the pastry 
and the filling are baked together. 

2. Pies made \vith a cooked filling are best when the 
crust, or shell, is previously baked. 

3. When a pie is made of very juicy fruit its under crust 
should be brushed over with white of egg, to prevent 
sogginess, and a little flour should be added to the filling, 
two tablespoonfuls to every cup of sugar used as sweeten- 
ing, to absorb excess of moisture. 

4. When the skins are retained on the fruit for a pie, 
or when other forms of tough cellulose are present; the 
sugar should be added last. (Why?) In this case the 
filling is very often cooked, and then Rule 2 should be 
observed. 

5. If a large amount of flour or starchy substance is used 
for the filling, this must be cooked before it goes into the 
pastry shell. 

6. Eggs may be substituted for flour, or flour for eggs, 
as thickening for the filling, or a mixture of both may be 

used for thickening. 

.' 

Note. One cup of flour mil make upper and under crusts for a good- 
sized pie; six tablespoonfuls will be enough for an individual pie 5-6 
inches in diameter. 

EXAMPLES 

Apple Pie 

Make a plain pie crust (see Chapter XVI, page 157), 
cut out the upper crust by inverting the pie plate on 
the sheet of pastry and cutting a circle from this at least 
one-half inch larger than the circumference of the pie 



206 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

plate. Line the pie plate with the remainder of the paste, 
and proceed as follows: 

Allow four or five good-sized apples for a pie about as 
large as a dinner plate. Wash the apples, divide into 
eighths or quarters, core, and pare. Cut the sections into 
thin slices, arrange these in the lined pie plate in layers, 
and sprinkle with sugar, allowing one to two tablespoon- 
fuls of sugar for each apple. Add a few cloves, or a little 
ground cinnamon, or nutmeg. Fill the apples well in 
toward the rim of the pie plate. Moisten the edges of 
the under crust with water before covering the pie with 
the upper crust. Slits or openings of any preferred shape 
should be cut in the upper crust before the pie is baked, 
to allow for the escape of steam. These may be made 
either before or after the upper crust is adjusted — it is 
easier to put the crust on the pie before the openings are 
made; it is easier to arrange the slits in some symmetrical 
design before the crust is put on. The two crusts should 
be pressed together lightly but firmly at the edges. 

Pastry should be baked in a very hot oven for the first 
half of the time; afterwards with gradually decreasing heat. 

Note. Bits of butter are sometimes put on the apples before the 
top crust goes on, to enrich the fiUing. 

Some cooks bake the apples without sugar, and after the pie is done, 
and while still hot, lift the upper crust and add the sweetening. 

The capacity of a pie plate may be enlarged by a process that is 
called building up the rim. Narrow strips of paste are cut and placed 
on the edge of the under crust, previously moistened, before the pie 
plate is filled. One, two, or more strips can be thus built up into a 
little ridge, deepening the cavity of the plate, so that a thick, generous 
pie can be made. 

Strawberry Pie 

Prepare the pastry as for apple pie, and arrange the 
under crust in the pie plate. Hull and wash the berries. 
Measure as much of the berries as will fill the pie plate, 



CAKES, PIES, AND PUDDINGS 207 

and measure half as much sugar as berries. Mix the sugar 
thoroughly with one-fourth its volume of flour. Brush 
the bottom crust over with w^hite of egg, and fill the pie 
plate with alternate layers of berries and sugar. Put on 
the top crust, and bake. 

Note. Instead of a top crust, strips of pastry about half an inch 
wide may be crossed over the top and moistened and pressed down 
where they touch the under crust. This may be said to be a compromise 
between a one-crust and a two-crust pie. 

Cranberry Pie 

Before putting in the under crust, measure water 
nearly to fill the pie plate. Measure as much cranberries 
as water, half as much raisins as cranberries, and as much 
sugar as raisins. Take two tablespoonfuls of flour for 
every cup of water. 

Cook flour, butter, and water as for medium white 
sauce (see Chapter II, page 9) . Add the cranberries and 
the raisins (stoned), and cook together until the raisins are 
soft. Remove from fire and add sugar. Pour the mixture 
into the pastry shell, which should have been previously 
baked. 

Note. Figs are a delicious substitute for raisins in a cranberry pie; 
or cranberries alone may be used. 

To Bake a Pastry Shell. Line the pie plate as usual. 
Place a piece of cheesecloth over the pastry, and on it 
enough flour, cornmeal, or similar substance to keep 
the pastry from losing its shape. Bake until the crust 
is brown and crisp on the under side. 

Another way is to invert a pie plate, and cover it with 
the pastry, fitting it smoothly on. Invert a second pie 
plate over this, laying it on lightly, and bake quickly in 
a hot oven until the crust is brown. The shell can then 



208 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

be slipped off and fitted into its proper place in the pie 
plate. 

Yet a third way is to fit the crust into the pie plate, and 
prick it all over with a fork before baking. This is the 
simplest method, but the pastry will not be so light, and 
the holes in the bottom may allow the juice to leak out. 
It can be used where the filling is not over moist. 

Raisin Pie 

Sometimes called Mock Mince Pie. Measure water in 
the pie plate, as for the cranberry pie. Take one-half as 
much raisins as water, one-eighth as much sugar as raisins, 
and one-half as much molasses as sugar. Allow one egg, 
one tablespoonful of lemon juice, and one teaspoonful of 
mixed spice for every cup of water used. 

Stone and chop the raisins, and cook them in the water 
until soft. Add sugar, molasses, and spice. Remove 
from fire, cool slightly, then stir in, first the beaten eggs, 
then the lemon juice. Pour into pastry shell, and cover 
with the top crust, or with strips of pastry. 

Lemon Pie 

Measure water as before. Take half as much sugar 
as water, half as much flour as sugar, and half as much 
lemon juice as flour. Allow one egg for every cup of water 
used, or one egg to a small pie; two or three to a large one. 

Heat the water. Mix the flour and sugar thoroughly, 
stir into the water, and cook, stirring constantly until 
the mixture boils. Remove from the fire, and very rapidly 
stir in the egg yolk. Add the lemon juice, and pour into 
the well-browned pastry shell. Cover the top with a 
meringue made from the whites of the eggs (see Chapter V, 
page 33) . This may be browned in the oven, or under a gas 



CAKES, PIES, AND PUDDINGS 209 

flame, or by holding- a hot stove lid, or a heated salaman- 
der over it. 

Note. When the egg is added the mixture should be warm enough 
to coagulate it sufficiently to thicken the whole, but not hot enough to 
cause curdling. The filUng made in this way should cut firm when cold. 

PUDDINGS 

To the Student. The foundation for several classes 
of puddings will be given, with merely a hint as to how 
the pudding is made. This will be a fine opportunity to 
use initiative and originality and to make some delicious 
pudding not just like everybody's else. 

FOUNDATIONS FOR PUDDINGS 

Foundation i. A thick batter. ,The batter is sweet- 
ened, enriched by eggs and butter; and fruit, either fresh 
or dried, spices, etc., may be added. Suet may be sub- 
stituted for butter, or molasses for sugar. Steam one 
hour for every cup or fraction of a cup of flour. 
. Foundation 2. A soft dough. The dough should be 
very light, and may be used in several ways : (a) Spread 
with fresh fruit or preserves, rolled up like a jelly-roll, 
and steamed, baked, or sometimes boiled. (6) Apples, 
cored and pared, or other fruit may be inclosed in individ- 
ual portions of the dough, and boiled, baked, or steamed. 
These are called dumplings, (c) Fresh fruit may be 
cooked in a deep dish, a sheet of biscuit dough on top, and 
the whole baked until the crust is brown. 

Foundation 3. Bread crumbs. Rolled and sifted 
crumbs are substituted for flour, and the baking powder 
measured as usual. The wetting should have a large 
proportion of egg. Fruit, sugar, etc., as for the puddings 
made on Foundation 1, may be added. 



210 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

The English Plum Pudding is made on a foundation of 
bread crumbs, but for this the bread should not be stale, 
and should be rubbed to crumbs rather than grated. An 
equal weight of every ingredient is taken, i.e., crumbs, 
finely-chopped suet, eggs, raisins, and currants. Candied 
peel and spices, in any desired quantity, are also used. 

This pudding, made on the basis of one pound of crumbs, 
with the other ingredients in proportion, will require from 
six to eight hours to boil — the longer rather than the 
shorter time being preferable. 

Foundation 4. Cereal. Proceed as for batter puddings, 
Foundation 1. Cooked, or left-over cereal, gives excellent 
results, but the uncooked grains, such as corn meal, 
pettijohn, etc., may be used, and also the ready-prepared 
forms, such as corn flakes, etc. 

Foundation 5. A chou paste (see Chapter XVI, pages 
163-5). Substitute milk for water, bake in individual 
cups, and serve hot, in the baking cups, with a rich sauce. 

Foundation 6. Cake or bread. These may be used in 
the following ways: (a) Cut stale cake into slices, ar- 
range in layers in a baking dish, alternating with fruit, 
pour a custard mixture over all, and bake. (6) Spread 
sUces of bread with butter, place in a baking dish with 
the buttered side down, pour a custard mixture over, and 
bake. (See Bread and Butter Pudding, Chapter XII, 
page 107.) (c) Make a hght cake mixture, bake, cut in 
slices, and serve while hot with a well-flavored sauce. 
This is called Cottage Pudding. 

Foundation 7. A thick sauce, using flour and liquid in 
the proportions for a thick white sauce. (See Chapter XII, 
page 110.) (a) Use fruit juice for the liquid, and either 
flour, cornstarch, or arrowroot for the thickening. (For pro- 
portions of these, see results of experiments, Chapter XIV, 



CAKES, PIES, AND PUDDINGS 211 

Exercise 3.)" ^ggs may be used to enrich the pudding, or 
to make it Hghter and more spongy. (See Chapter XV, 
page 143.) (b) Make a rich, thick white sauce, using flour, 
butter, and milk. Sweeten and flavor. Stir in the beaten 
yolks of four eggs for every cupful of milk used in making 
the sauce, then beat into the warm mixture the stiffly- 
beaten whites of the eggs. Bake in a slightly-greased 
pudding dish for from one-half to three-quarters of an 
hour. Observe the same rules for the care of the oven 
given for the baking of popovers (Chapter XV, page 145) . 

To Boil Puddings 

Method I. The pudding is tied in a cloth wrung out of 
hot water and then well dredged with flour. Room is 
allowed for swelling. The bag thus made, containing the 
pudding mixture, is dropped into rapidly boiling water 
and boiled continuously until cooked, the amount of 
water being kept up as it is reduced by evaporation. A 
thick stoneware plate in the bottom of the kettle will keep 
the pudding bag from adhering to the hot metal, and pos- 
sibly burning. 

Method 2. The pudding is poured into a well-greased 
bowl or other mold, and a floured cloth is tied over this. 
Bowl and all are dropped into boiling water and cooked as 
in 1. 

Method 3. The pudding is poured into a well-greased 
pudding tin, or other mold. This is covered with oiled 
paper and set into a kettle of boiling water, which is 
covered and kept over the fire until the pudding is cooked. 

Note. All boiled puddings may be steamed with equally good 
results. 



212 



PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 



QUESTIONS 

1. What rules for the making of pies were illustrated 
in each of the recipes for pies given in this chapter? 

2. Which method of cooking — boiling, baking, or 
steaming — could best be used for each of the seven classes 
of puddings, or for any variation within each class? 

3. Name the chief principles of the preparation of food 
that were demonstrated in making one particular dish of 
each of the three kinds — cake, pie, or pudding — described 
in this chapter. 

EXERCISES 

1. Construct an original cake mixture on the basis of 
the 1-2-3^ cake. 

2. Make any one of the following pies, illustrating 
thereby some definite rule or rules for the making of pies: 
orange cream pie, orange meringue pie, nut custard pie, 
cherry pie, fig pie, sweet potato pie, squash pie. 

3. Make a pudding on any one of the '' Foundations" 
you prefer. 

4. Frost a cake and decorate it, imitating the illustra- 
tions that follow. 




CAKE COVERED WITH CONFECTIONER'S FROSTING, READY 

TO ORNAMENT 



CAKES, PIES, AND PUDDINGS 



213 




CAKE DECORATED WITH ORNAMENTAL FROSTING 

Tubes used: leaf, star, and small cord; shank on which tubes can be 
screwed; paper folded and cut same as leaf tube. 



, 



APPENDICES 



PREFACE TO APPENDIX A 

THE composition of the foods in the series of charts in Ap- 
pendix A has been adapted from Bulletin 28, United States 
Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations. 
The percentage composition given in Bulletin 28 has been trans- 
lated into pounds and ounces, for the convenience of the house- 
keeper, since food is purchased — and thought of — in this way 
by the ''plain woman" (to paraphrase the language of the phi- 
losophers), who buys and cooks, if not by the scientist. 

These pounds and ounces have been estimated in as nearly 
round numbers as possible. Common foods are not of definite 
chemical composition; no two samples of any one food yield 
identical results on analysis — hence, to repeat, round averages 
have been given, as being easier to remember, easier to calculate 
from, and sufficiently^ correct for everj^day use. 

The estimation of the nutrients has been made from the 
analyses of the foods ''as purchased," since we are all interested 
in knowing just what we get for our money when we go to 
market, and just how much of that good money has to be spent 
for "refuse." 

The calorific value of each food has been copied without alter- 
ation from Bulletin 28, from the average "as purchased." 

On the other hand, the 100-calorie portions have been esti- 
mated from the foods as cooked and ready to serve, so that the 
portions are, presumably, whollj^ edible. 

The prices are of course approximate, and will be found to vary 
according to season, locality, and ver>^ often according to the 
amount purchased. 



APPENDIX A 

CHARTS OF THE COMPOSITION OF FOODS 



BREAD, CAKE, AND CRACKERS — AS PURCHASED 









Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 






Cost 


Am't 








Name 


of 


in 












Calories 




1 lb. 


1 lb. 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


C'hy 


Water 


Salts 


fr. 1 lb. 


Boston brown bread 


$0.04 


%of5»iloaf 


2.0 


0.2 


8.0 


5.7 


0.1 


1230 


Graham 


.05 


1 loaf 


1.5 


0.3 


8.3 


5.7 


0.2 


1210 


Rye 


.05 


1 loaf 


1.5 


0.1 


8.5 


5.7 


0.2 


1190 


White 


.05 


1 loaf 


1.5 


0.2 


8.5 


.5.7 


0.1 


1215 


Zwieback 


.10 


44 zwbk. 


1.6 


1.6 


11.7 


1.0 


0.1 


1970 


Cake, avg. of 


.15 




1.0 


1.5 


10.0 


3.3 


0.2 


1675 


Crackers, avg. 


.25 


64 soda 


1.4 


1.4 


12.0 


1.0 


0.2 


1905 



100-Calorie Portion of Above, as Purchased 

Boston brown bread 1.3 ounces, one rather small, round slice. 

Graham bread .... 1.3 ounces, one good slice. 

Rye bread 1.3 ounces, one good slice. 

White bread 1.3 ounces, one good slice. 

Zwieback 0.8 ounce, between 2-3 zwieback. 

Cake 1.0 ounce, 

Crackers 0.8 ounce, between 3-4 crackers. 



217 



218 



PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 



II 
CEREALS AND CEREAL PREPARATIONS — AS PURCHASED 









Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 






Cost 


Am't 








No. of 


Name 


of 


in 










Calories 




1 lb. 


1 lb. 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat C'hy 


Water 


Salts 


fr. 1 lb. 


Barley (meal) 


$0.10 


2 cups 


1.6 


0.3 


11.7 


2.0 


0.4 


1640 


Corn meal 


.04 


2)4 cups 


1.5 


0.3 


12.0 


2.0 


0.2 


1655 


Macaroni 


.12 


40 stks. 


2.2 


0.1 


11.8 


1.7 


0.2 


1665 


Oatmeal 


.05 


2 cups 


2.5 


1.2 


11.0 


1.0 


0.3 


1860 


*Rice 


.08 


2 cups 


1.3 


0.0 


12.6 


2.0 


0.1 


1630 


Rolled oats 


.05 


.3 cups 


2.6 


1.2 


10.7 


1.2 


0.3 


1850 


Flaked wheat 


.08 


3-6 cups 


2.0 


0.3 


12.0 


1.4 


0.3 


1690 


Shredded wheat 


.123^ 


12 cups 


2.0 


0.3 


12.0 


1.5 


0.2 


1700 


Wheat germs 


.07 


2 cups 


1.6 


0.3 


12.2 


1.7 


0.2 


1695 



♦Amounts of the nutrients under 0.1 ounce in 1 lb. are omitted, since such 
small quantities may be disregarded in ordinary work. 



lOO-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 

Corn-meal mush . . . 4-5 ounces, 



Macaroni 3-4 ounces, 

Oatmeal porridge . . . 3-4 ounces, 

Rice, boiled 3-4 ounces, 

Rolled oats, porridge . 3-4 ounces, 



Flaked wheat, dry 
Shredded wheat 
Wheat germs . . 



1 ounce, 
1 ounce, 
3-4 ounces. 



an ordinary helping, about a 

half-cupful, 
a side dishful as usually helped, 
an ordinary helping, a small 

half-cupful, 
an ordinary helping, a small 

half-cupful, 
an ordinary helping, a small 

half-cupful. 
34 to 3^ of 1 cupful, 
one shredded-wheat biscuit, 
an ordinary helping, a small 

half-cupful. 



CHAET8 OF COMPOSITION OF FOODS 



219 



III 
DAIRY PRODUCE — AS PURCHASED 





Cost 

of 

1 lb. 


Am't 

in 
1 lb. 


Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 


No of 


Name 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


C'hy 


Water 


Salts 


Ref- 
use 


Calories 
fr. 1 lb. 


Butter 
Buttermilk 
Cheese 

Cream cheese 
Cream 
Milk 

Skimmed milk 
Whey 


$0.30 

.01 Ji 

.20 

.20 
.10-20 
.03-05 

•OiM 


2 cups 
1 pint 

1 pint 
1 pint 
1 pint 
1 pint 


0.2 
0.4 
4.5 
4.0 
0.4 
0.5 
0.5 
0.1 


13.5 
0.1 
5.5 
5.4 
3.0 
0.6 
0.0 
0.0 


0.7 
0.1 
0.4 
0.6 
0.8 
0.8 
0.8 


1.8 
14.7 
5.2 
5.7 
12.0 
14.0 
14.6 
15.0 


0.5 
0.1 
0.7 
0.5 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 






3605 
165 
2055 
1950 
910 
325 
170 
125 



100-Calorie Portion of Above, as Purchased 

Butter 0.5 ounce, 1 small ball or square. 

Buttermilk 10.0 ounces, 1% glasses. 

Cheese 0.8 ounce, an ordinary cube, 1^ to 2-inch. 

Cream cheese 0.8 ounce, an ordinary 1>^ to 2-inch cube. 

Cream 2.0 ounces, M cupful. 

Milk 5.0 ounces, a generous % of 1 cupful. 

Skimmed milk .... 9-10 ounces, 13^ to \}4 cupfuls. 

Whey 12.0 ounces, l}^ cupfuls. 



220 



PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 



IV 
FRUIT, DRIED— AS PURCHASED 









Ounces of the following 


in 1 lb. 






Cost 


Am't 










No. of 


Name 


of 


in 














Calories 




1 lb. 


1 lb. 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


C'hy 


Water 


Salts 


Ref- 
use 


fr. 1 lb. 


Apples 


$0.10 


4 cups 


0.3 


0.3 


10.7 


4.5 


0.2 




1350 


Apricots 


.15 


80 apr. 


0.8 


0.2 


10.0 


4.7 


0.3 




1290 


Currants 


.12 


2 cups 


0.5 


0.3 


12.0 


2.5 


0.7 




1500 


Dates 


.10 


60 dts. 


0.3 


0.5 


11.5 


2.2 


0.1 


1.4 


1450 


Figs 


.16 


16 fgs. 


0.8 


0.0 


12.0 


3.0 


0.2 




1475 


Prunes 


.10 


40-50 


0.3 


0.0 


10.0 


3.0 


0.2 


2.5 


1200 


Raisins 


.12 


2 cups 


0.5 


0.5 


11.0 


2.5 


0.5 


1.0 


1450 



100-Calorie Portion of Above, as Purchased 

Apples 0.8 ounce, nearly 3^ of 1 cupful. 

Apricots 0.8 ounce, 3 to 4 apricots. 

Currants 1.1 ounces, about 3^ of 1 cupful. 

Dates 1.2 ounces, about 4 dates. 

Figs 1.1 ounces, 1 large fig. 

Prunes 1.4 ounces, 3 to 4 prunes. 

Raisins 1.2 ounces, About 3^ of 1 cupful. 



CHARTS OF COMPOSITION OF FOODS 



221 



V 



FRUIT, FRESH — AS PURCHASED 







Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 






Cost 


Am't 












No. of 


Name 


of 


in 












Calories 




1 lb. 


1 lb. 


I'ro- 
tein 


Fat 


C'hy 


Water 


Salts 


Ret- 
fuse 


fr. 1 lb. 


Apples 


$0.03-04 


3 avg. 


0.1 


0.0 


1.8 


10.0 


0.1 


4.0 


220 


Apricots 




6 avg. 


0.1 


0.0 


2.0 


12.0 


0.1 


1.0 


255 


Bananas 


.05 


3-4 


0.1 


0.1 


2.3 


8.2 


0.1 


5.2 


300 


Cherries 




100-130 


0.1 


0.1 


2.5 


12.0 


0.1 


0.8 


345 


Cranberries 


.10 


4 cups 


0.1 


0.1 


1.6 


14.2 


0.0 




215 


Grapes 


.05-25 


100-120 


0.1 


0.2 


2.3 


9.3 


0.1 


2-4 


335 


Melons 






0.1 


0.0 


0.7 


7.2 


0.0 


8.0 


90 


Oranges 


.05-10 


2-3 


0.1 


0.0 


1.3 


10.2 


0.1 


4.3 


170 


Peaches 




5-6 


0.1 


0.0 


1.4 


11.2 


0.1 


3.2 


145 


Plums 






0.1 


0.0 


3.2 


11.8 


0.1 


0.8 


370 


Pears 




3-4 


0.1 


0.0 


2.0 


12.2 


0.1 


1.6 


260 


Strawberries 


.15 


1^ qts. 


0.1 


0.1 


1.2 


13.7 


0.1 


0.8 


175 



100-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 

Apples 7 ounces, 1 to 2 apples. 

Apricots 6-7 ounces, 2 to 3 apricots. 

Bananas 5 ounces, 1 good-sized banana. 

Cherries 4 ounces, 30 to 35 cherries. 

Cranberries 7 ounces, nearly a cupful of stewed berries 

(without sugar) . 

Grapes 5 ounces, 20 to 25 grapes. 

Melons 

Oranges 9 ounces, 1 big orange. 

Peaches 10 ounces, about 3 peaches. 

Plums 4r-5 ounces, 1 to 3 plums. 

Pears 7 ounces, 1 to 2 pears. 

Strawberries 9 ounces, 30-50 berries. 



222 



principle:s of food preparation 



VI 
FISH, GROUP I 







Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 






Cost 








No of 


Name 


of 














Calories 




1 lb. 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


C'hy 


Water 


Salts 


Ref- 
fuse 


fr, 1 lb. 


Black bass 


$0.22 


1.5 


0.1 






5.5 


0.1 


8.8 


205 


Buffalo fish 


.10 


1.4 


0.2 






6.0 


0.1 


8.3 


205 


Codfi-h 


.12 


1.3 


0.0 






6.3 


0.1 


8.3 


165 


Dried codfish 


.08 


4.5 


0.0 






8.8 


2.4 


0.3 


400 


Haddock 


.12 


1.4 


0.0 






6.5 


0.1 


8.0 


165 


Flounder 


.15 


1.0 


0.0 






5.2 


0.1 


9.7 


115 


Perch (white) 


.10 


1.2 


0.2 






4.5 


0.1 


10.0 


200 


Pickerel (pike) 


.12 


1.4 


0.0 






7.0 


0.1 


7.5 


190 


Red snapper 


.15 


1.7 


0.1 






6.7 


0.1 


7.4 


225 



lOO-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 

Black bass 3.5 ounces. 

Buffalo fish 3.5 ounces. 

Codfish 4.5 ounces. 

Dried codfish .... 1.4 ounces. 

Haddock 4.5 ounces. 

Flounder 6.0 ounces. 

Perch (white) .... 3.5 ounces. 

Pickerel (pike) .... 3.3 ounces. 

Red snapper 3.2 ounces. 

QUESTIONS 

Why is the water-content of dried codfish higher than that of fresh? 

Considering the amount of refuse in dried and in fresh codfish, which 
is the more economical purchase, that is, which will yield the most 
protein and the largest number of calories for an equal sum? 



CHARTS OF COMPOtSITION OF FOODS 



228 



VII 

FISH, CRUSTACEOUS — AS PURCHASED 









Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 






Cost 


Ani't 




No. of 


Name 


of 


in 














Calories 




lib. 


1 lb. 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


C'hy 


Water 


Salts 


Ref- 
fuse 


fr. 1 lb. 


Clams (solids) 


$0.20 


15-20 


1.8 


0.1 


0.8 


13.0 


0.3 




340 


Crabs, in shell 


.30 


6 avg. 


1.3 


0.1 


0.1 


6.0 


0.2 


8.3 


195 


Lobster 


.25 


Yi of 
1 lobster 


1.0 


0.1 


0.0 


4.8 


0.1 


10.0 


140 


Oysters 


.20 


1 pint or 


1.0 


0.3 


0.5 


14.0 


0.2 




335 


(solids) 




20 avg. 
















Scallops 


.20 


1 pint 
or 20-30 


2.3 


0.0 


0.5 


13.0 


1.2 




345 



lOO-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 



Claras, cooked . 
Crabs, meat of . 

Lobster, meat of 
Oysters, cooked 



ounces, 
ounces, 

ounces, 
ounces, 



Scallops 4.7 ounces. 



3-5 clams. 

meat of from 2-3 crabs after 

cooking, 
about 3^ of the meat of 1 lobster, 
about 5 oysters. 
5 to 8 scallops. 



224 



PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 



VIII 
FISH, GROUP II — AS PURCHASED 





Cost 

of 
1 lb. 


Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 


No. of 


Name 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


C'hy 


Water 


Salts 


Ref- 
fuse 


Calories 
fr. 1 lb. 


Butterfish 

Catfish 

Eel 

Halibut 

Lake trout 

Mackerel 

Salmon 

Shad 

Whitefish 


$0.15 
.12 

.16-25 
.15 
.25 

.12-20 
.20 
.15 


1.5 
3.6 
2.5 
2.5 
1.5 
1.7 
2.4 
1.5 
1.7 


1.0 
2.7 
1.4 
0.8 
0.8 
0.6 
1.5 
0.8 
0.5 






6.4 
8.2 
9.0 
9.3 
6.0 
6.6 
6.5 
5.6 
5.2 


0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 


7.0 
3.0 
3.0 
2.3 
7.6 
7.0 
5.5 
8.0 
8.5 


460 
915 
580 
470 
385 
365 
660 
380 
325 



lOO-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 

Butterfish 3.0 ounces. 

Catfish 1.5 ounces. 

Eel 2.8 ounces. 

Halibut 3.0 ounces. 

Lake trout 3.0 ounces. 

Mackerel 3.5 ounces. 

Salmon 2.0 ounces. 

Shad 3.0 ounces. 

Whitefish 3.7 ounces. 

QUESTIONS 

Which group of fish has the highest calorific value? To what may 
this be attributed? Could the two groups be classified on this basis? 



CHARTS OF COMPOSITION OF FOODS 



225 



IX 



FLOUR, SUGAR, SYRUP, CHOCOLATE, ETC. 
AS PURCHASED 









Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 






Coat 


Am't 










No. of 


Name 


of 


in 












Calories 




1 lb. 


1 lb. 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


C'hy 


Water 


Salts 


fr. 1 lb. 


Bread flour 


$0.04 


3 cups 


1.7 


0.2 


12.2 


1.8 


0.1 


1665 


Pastry flour 


.07 


3M cups 


1.3 


0.2 


12.2 


2.2 


0.1 


1625 


Whole wheat flour 


.04 


2)4 cups 


2.2 


0.3 


11.5 


1.8 


0.2 


1675 


Graham flour 


.04 


3 cups 


2.2 


0.3 


11.4 


1.8 


0.3 


1670 


Corn starch 


.10 


2M cups 


0.0 


0.0 


14.5 


1.5 


0.0 


1675 


Cane sugar 


.06 


2 cups 


0.0 


0.0 


16.0 


0.0 


0.0 


1860 


Honey, strained 


.25 


l}4 cups 


0.0 


0.0 


13.0 


3.0 


0.0 


1520 


Molasses 


.06 


1 pint 


0.2 


0.0 


11.3 


4.0 


0.5 


1290 


Tapioca 


.10 


2 cups 


0.2 


0.0 


14.0 


1.8 


0.0 


1650 


Chocolate 


.50 


16 sqrs. 


2.0 


7.6 


5.0 


1.0 


0.4 


2860 


Cocoa 


.50 


2 cups 


3.3 


4.5 


6.0 


0.8 


1.4 


2320 


Olive oil 


.50-75 


1 pint 


0.0 


16.0 


0.0 


0.0 


0.0 


4082 



100-Calorie Portion of the Foods, as Purchased 



Bread and other flours . 1 .0 ounce, 



Corn starch 1.0 ounce, 

Cane sugar 0.9 ounce, 

Honey, strained ... 1.0 ounce, 

Molasses 1.4 ounces, 

Tapioca 1.0 ounce, 

Chocolate 0.6 ounce, 

Cocoa 0.8 ounce, 

Olive oil 0.2 ounce, 



3 tablespoons, or as much flour 
as will make one biscuit of 
average size. 

2 tablespoons, or as much as will 
stiffen 1 cup of milk or other 
liquid to a mold. 

nearly 2 tablespoons of granu- 
lated sugar, or 3-4 lumps. 

2 tablespoonfuls. 

2 generous tablespoonfuls. 

2 tablespoons, enough to make 

a cupful of pudding, 
half a square, or just a little over. 

3 tablespoons. 
1}4 teaspoonfuls. 



226 



PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 



X 

MEATS AND OTHER FOODS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN 





Cost 

of 
lib. 


Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 


No. of 


Name 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


C'hy 


Water 


Salts 


Ref- 
fuse 


Calories 
fr. 1 lb. 


Bacon 

Beef 

Corned beef 

Dried beef 

Lamb 

Mutton 

Pork 

Veal 

Eggs, hen's 

Gelatine 


$0.15-25 
.10-30 
.08-18 
.25-30 
.10-30 
.08-25 
.15-20 
.10-25 
.15-35 
.60-1.25 


1.3 
2.5 
2.0 
4.0 
2.0 
2.0 
1.3 
2.8 
2.0 
13.4 


10.0 
1.8 
4.0 
1.3 
3.0 
3.8 
7.6 
1.0 
1.5 






2.5 
8.6 
8.0 
8.5 
7.5 
7.0 
5.0 
8.5 
10.6 
2.0 


0.7 
0.1 
0.7 
1.5 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.6 


1.3 
3.0 
1.3 
0.7 
3.4 
3.0 
2.0 
3.6 
1.8 


2795 

735 

1271 

780 

1055 

1255 

2215 

580 

650 

1705 



lOO-Calorie Portion of Above Foods, as Usually Served 

Bacon 0.5 ounce, or from 1 to 2 small, thin slices. 

Beef 3.0 ounces, or an ordinary small helping. 

Corned beef 1.5 ounces, or an ordinary helping. 

Dried beef 2.8 ounces, or an ordinary good helping. 

Lamb 1.4 ounces, or 3^ of 1 chop, or twice the vol- 
ume of lean from the leg, etc. 

Mutton 1.6 ounces, or an ordinary slice. 

Pork 0.4 ounce, or ^ of a small slice. 

Veal 3.0 ounces, or an ordinary helping. 

Eggs 2.5 ounces, or 1 very large egg, or 1^ eggs 

of average size. 

Gelatine 1.0 ounce, or about 2 tablespoonfuls of the 

dry, granulated gelatine. 



CHARTS OF COMPOSITION OF FOODS 



227 



XI 

NUTS, IN SHELL — AS PURCHASED 









Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 






rn<?t 












No. of 


Name 


of 


in 














Calories 




1 lb. 


1 lb. 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


C'hy 


Water 


Salts 


Ref- 
fuse 


fr. 1 lb. 


Almonds 


$0.20-25 


120 


2.0 


4.8 


1.5 


0.5 


0.2 


7.0 


1660 


Butternuts 






0.6 


1.3 


0.1 


0.1 


0.1 


13.8 


430 


Chestnuts 


.10-20 




1.3 


0.8 


9.0 


0.8 


0.3 


3.8 


1425 


Cocoanuts 


.05-10 


1 small 


0.5 


4.2 


2.4 


1.0 


0.1 


7.8 


1413 


Filberts 


.15 


4 cups 


1.2 


5.0 


1.0 


0.3 


0.2 


8.3 


1575 


Hickory- 


.05 


100 


1.0 


4.0 


0.7 


0.2 


0.2 


10.0 


1265 


Peanuts 


.05 


1 qt. 


3.0 


4.5 


3.0 


1.0 


0.2 


4.3 


1935 


Pecans 


.20-25 


100 


1.0 


5.3 


1.0 


0.2 


0.2 


8.4 


1846 


Walnuts 


.30 


50 


1.0 


4.2 


1.0 


0.2 


0.1 9.5 


1375 



100-Calorie Portion of Above, as Purchased 



Almonds 1 ounce, 

Butternuts 4 ounces, 

Chestnuts 1.1 ounces, 

Cocoanuts 1.1 ounces. 

Filberts 1.0 ounce, 

Hickory nuts .... 1.3 ounces. 

Peanuts 0.8 ounce. 

Pecans 0.8 ounce. 

Walnuts 0.9 ounce, 



7 or 8 almonds. 

1 to 2 chestnuts. 

10 to 12 nuts. 
6 to 8 nuts, 
about a dozen. 
6 to 8 nuts. 
4 whole walnuts. 



228 



PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 



XII 
POULTRY 







Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 






Cost 




No. of 


Name 


of 














Calories 




1 lb. 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


C'hy 


Water 


Salts 


Ref- 
fuse 


fr. 1 lb. 


Chicken 


$0.15-20 


2.0 


0.2 




7.0 


0.1 


6.7 


295 


Duck 


.18-20 


2.0 


4.0 




6.0 


0.1 


3.0 


1220 


Fowl 


.12-16 


2.4 


2.0 




7.5 


0,1 


4.0 


775 


Goose 


.15-20 


2.2 


4.5 




6.4 


0.1 


2.8 


1506 


Turkey 


.18-25 


2.8 


3.0 




6.6 


0.1 


3.5 


1075 



100-Calorie Portion of Above Foods, as Usually Served 

Chicken 3.0 ounces, 1 small second joint, or a side 

of the breast. 

Duck 1.0 ounce, an equivalent portion, or a mod- 
erate helping. 

Fowl 1.7 ounces, an equivalent portion, or a mod- 
erate helping. 

Goose 0.8 ounce, an equivalent portion, or a mod- 
erate helping. 

Turkey 1.3 ounces, an equivalent portion, or a mod- 
erate helping. 

QUESTIONS 

Account for the fact that there is a larger proportion of refuse in 
chicken than in the other forms of poultry. 

Considering the calorific value and the amount of refuse in these foods 
as purchased, which would be the most economical kind of poultry to 
buy at the highest cost given for each? 



CHARTS OF COMPOSITION OF FOODS 



229 



XIII 
VEGETABLES, GREEN — AS PURCHASED 





Cost 


Am't. 


Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 


No. of 


Name 


of in 
1 lb. 1 lb. 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat C'hy 


Water Salts 

1 


Ref- 
fuse 


Calories 
fr. 1 lb. 


Asparagus 

Cabbage 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Lettuce 

Spinach 


$0.10-20 

.03-08 

.10 

.20 
.20 
.08-10 


1 good 
bunch 

head 

1 small 
head 

2 heads 
2 heads 
1 quart 


0.4 

0.3 

0.3 

0.2 
0.2 
0.3 


0.0 

0.0 

0.1 

0.0 
0.0 
0.0 


0.5 

0.8 

0.8 

0.5 
0.5 
0.6 


15.0 

12.8 

14.7 

12.0 
12.8 
14.8 


O.l 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 
0.1 
0.3 


2.0 

3.0 
2.4 


103 

125 

140 

70 

75 

110 



lOO-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 

Asparagus 14 ounces, almost, after cooking. 

Cabbage 11 ounces, after cooking. 

Cauliflower 12 ounces, after cooking. 

Celery IH pounds, 

Lettuce 1J4 pounds, 

Spinach 12 ounces, after cooking. 

QUESTIONS 

What could be added to these vegetables as seasoning or condiment 
to bring up their calorific value? 



230 



PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 



XIV 

VEGETABLES, LEGUMINOUS — AS PURCHASED 





Cost 


Am't 


Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 


No. of 


Name 


of 


in 














Calories 




1 lb 


1 lb. 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


C'hy Water 


Salts 


Re- 
fuse 


fr. 1 lb. 


Beans, butter 


$0.12>^ 


80 pods 


0.7 


0.0 


2.5 


4.7 


0.1 


8.0 


370 


Beans, dried 


.05 


2 cups 


3.6 


0.3 


9.5 


2.0 


0.6 




1605 


Beans, Lima, 




















fresh 


.12 




0.5 


0.0 


1.6 


5.0 


0.1 


8.8 


255 


Beans, Lima 




















dried 


.10 


2}/i cups 


3.0 


0.2 


10.6 


1.6 


0.6 




1625 


Beans, string 


.15 


100 pods 


0.3 


0.0 


1.0 


13.5 


0.2 




180 


Lentils 


.10 


2}4 cups 


4.0 


0.1 


9.5 


1.4 


1.0 




1620 


Peas, dried 


.05 


2 cups 


4.0 


0.1 


10.0 


1.5 


0.4 




1655 


Peas, green 


.15 


100 pods 


0.5 


0.0 


1.5 


6.5 


0.1 


7.4 


255 



lOO-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 



Beans, butter 



3 ounces, 



Beans, dried, cooked 2-3 ounces. 

Beans, Lima 4 ounces, 

Beans, Lima, dried, 

cooked 3 ounces, 

Beans, string 1 pound. 

Lentils 3-4 ounces. 

Peas, dried, cooked . . 2-3 ounces. 

Peas, green 3-4 ounces, 



1 good helping, something less 

than 3^ cupful. 
1 small helping, 
a large helping, 3^2 cupful. 

1 good helping, 
about a pint, 
a good helping, 
a small helping, 
a good helping. 



CHARTS OF COMPOSITION OF FOODS 



231 



XV 

VEGETABLES, STARCHY — AS PURCHASED 





1 




Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 






C03t 


Am't 




No. of 


Name 


of 


in 








1 




Calories 




1 lb. 


1 lb. 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


C'hy 


Water 


Salts 


Kef- 
use 


fr. 1 lb. 


Hominy 




3H cups 


1.5 


0.1 


12.5 


1.8 


0.1 




1650 


Macaroni 




See Cereals and Cereal Preparations, page 218 




Potatoes 


$.01-02 


3-4 1 0.3 1 0.0 1 2.5 1 10.5 | 0.1 1 2.6 


310 


Rice 




See Cereals and Cereal Preparations, page 218 




Sweet potatoes 


.0.3 

1 

1 


3-4 0.3 0.1 j 3.5 J 9.4 0.1 2.6 

' 1 


460 



100-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 

Hominy 4 ounces, J'^ cupful of cooked hominy. 

Macaroni .... 4 ounces, nearly, the usual helping. 

Potatoes 4-5 ounces, 1 good-sized potato 

Rice 3-4 ounces, the usual helping. 

Sweet potatoes .... 3-4 ounces, ]4, of a large, or 1 small sweet 

potato. 



232 



PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 



XVI 
VEGETABLES, SUCCULENT — AS PURCHASED 









Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 






Cost 


Am't 






No. of 


Name 


of 


in 














Calories 




1 lb. 


1 lb. 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


C'hy 


Water 


Salts 


Ref- 
fuse 


fr. 1 lb. 


Cucumber 


$0.20 


13^-2 
large 


0.1 


0.0 


0.4 


13.0 


0.1 


2.4 


70 


Egg plant 


.05-10 


i^of 1 
egg pl. 


0.2 


0.0 


1.0 


14.7 


0.1 




130 


Green corn 


.01-02 


2-4 
ears 


0.2 


0.1 


1.2 


4.4 


0.1 


10.0 


455 


Squash 


.05 


'A-l sq. 


0.1 


0.0 


0.8 


7.0 


0.1 


8.0 


105 


Tomatoes 


.01-02 


2-4 


0.1 


0.1 


0.7 


15.0 


0.1 




105 



lOO-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 

Cucumbers, pared ' . . 114 pounds, 2 to 4 cucumbers, after paring. 
Egg plant, fried . . . 12-14 ounces, 7 or 8 good slices. 
Green corn 4-5 ounces, 1 medium-sized ear, after cook- 
ing. 
Squash, cooked .... 8 ounces, a cupful of pulp, after cooking. 

Tomatoes 1 poimd, nearly a pint of cooked tomato. 



CHARTS OF COMPOSITION OF FOODS 



233 



XVII 
VEGETABLES, ROOT — AS PURCHASED 





Cost 


Am't 


Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 


No. of 


Name 


of 
lib. 


in 
1 lb. 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


C'hy 


Water 


Salts ^«^- 
use 


Calories 
fr. 1 lb. 


Beets 




3-6 


0.2 


0.0 


1.5 


11.2 


0.1 , 3.0 


170 


Carrots 




2-6 


0.2 


0.0 


1.5 


11.0 


0.1 : 3.2 


160 


Onions 


$0.03 


4-6 


0.2 


0.1 


1.5 


12.6 


0.1 1.5 


205 


Parsnips 

Rutabagas 

Turnips 


.02 
.02 
.01-02 


2-5 

KoflRb. 

3-4 


0.2 
0.2 
0.2 


0.1 
0.0 
0.0 


1.8 
1.1 
1.0 


11.0 
10.0 
10.0 


0.2 1 2.7 
0.1 4.6 
0.1 ! 4.7 


240 
135 
125 



lOO-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 

Beets 7-8 ounces, 3 medium-sized beets, after 

peeling. 

Carrots 7-8 ounces, 3 medium-sized carrots. 

Onions 7-8 ounces, 2 to 3 onions. 

l*arsnips 5-6 ounces, 1 to 2 parsnips. 

Rutabagas 10-12 ounces, a heaping cupful of the mashed 

vegetable. 
Turnips 8-9 ounces, 2 to 3 turnips. 



234 



PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 



XVIII 
VISCERAL FOODS— AS PURCHASED 



1 





1 
Cost 1 Am't 


Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 


No. of 


Name I of in 
lib. ! 1 lb. 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


C'hy 


Water 


Salts 


Ref- 
use 


Calories 
fr. 1 lb. 


Brains, calves' 
Heart, beef's 

Kidneys, 

veal or lamb 
Liver, calves' 
Sweetbreads 
Tongue, beef's 

Tripe 


$0,121/^ 1 1 pair 

.08 1 y^-Hoi 

\ 1 heart 
.05 4-6, or 1 

kdny. beef 

1 2-4 slices 

.30 1-2 pair 
.12 H-H of 
1 tongue 
.08-10 


1.4 
2.5 

2.5 

3.0 
2.5 
2.5 

2.6 


1.5 
4.0 

1.3 

1.5 
2.0 
1.0 

1.3 


0.4 


13.0 

8.4 

12.0 

11.0 
11.3 

8.4 

12.0 


0.1 

0.1 1.0 

0.2 

1 

0.1 
0.2 
0.1 4.0 

0.1 


555 
1320 

585 

575 
825 
545 

270 



100-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 



Brains 2^ ounces, 

Heart 1.0 ounce, 

Kidneys 2.0 ounces, 

Liver 2.0 ounces. 

Sweetbreads 2.0 ounces, 

Tongue 1.5 ounces, 

Tripe 6.0 ounces. 



3^2 to 1 kidney. 
3^ to 3^ a slice. 



Account for the presence of carbohydrate where it occurs in visceral 
foods. 



APPENDIX B 

TIME TABLES FOR COOKING 



Time Table for Cooking Meats, Poultry, and Fish 

I. MEATS 

Baking. hours min. 

Beef, rare, per pound 8-12 

Beef, well done, per pound 15 

Beef, fillet, very hot oven 30 

Beef, sirloin or ribs, 5 lbs., rare .... 1 5 

Beef, sirloin or ribs, 5 lbs., well done . 1 20 

Beef, sirloin or ribs, 10 lbs., rare ... 1 30 

Beef, sirloin or ribs, 10 lbs., well done . 1 50 

Beef, rump or chuck, 10 lbs., rare . . 1 35 

Beef, rump or chuck, 10 lbs., well done 2 

Lamb, per pound 15-18 

Lamb, crown of 1 

Lamb, fore quarter, 6-8 lbs 1 30 

Lamb, leg, 6 lbs 1 30 

Mutton, rare, per pound 10 

Mutton, well done, per pound .... 15 

Mutton, large leg, 12 lbs 2 

Mutton, saddle 1 15-30 

Mutton, shoulder, stuffed, 5-6 lbs. . . 1 15 

Pork, per pound 30 

Veal, per pound 20 

Venison, per pound 10 

Boiling. 

Beef, per pound 15-20 

Beef, corned, per pound 30 

Mutton, per pound 15-20 

Broiling. 

Chops, French or loin 6 

Chops, English 8-10 

Steak, 1 in. thick ' 4-8 

Steak, l}/^ in. thick 6-10 

235 



23G PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

Frying. hours min. 

Bacon, thin 3-5 

Chicken 6-8 

Chops, breaded 5 

Croquettes 1-2 

Tests for cooking meat. 

1. The muscle, when sHghtly pressed, is elastic; it loses elasticity 

when overcooked. 

2. When pressed close to the bone with the tines of a fork, if the 

juice that flows is very slightly pink, the meat is properly 
cooked. If the juice is red the meat is underdone; if colorless, 
it is overcooked. 
Note. The length of time for cooking fish and meat depends more 
on the shape than on the weight of the piece — a thick, chunky 
piece calling for a longer time than a thin, flat piece. 



II. POULTRY 
Baking. 

Chicken, 3-4 lbs 1-1 >^ 

Duck 

Duck, wild, very hot oven 

Fowl, 4-5 lbs 2-23^ 

Goose, 8 lbs 2 

Turkey, 8 lbs lM-2 

Turkey, 12 lbs 3 

Boiling. 

Chicken, per pound 

Chicken, 3 lbs 

Fowl, per pound 

Turkey, per pound 

Turkey, 9 lbs 2^ 

Broiling. 

Chicken, spring 

Squab 

Frying. 

Chicken 

Test for the cooking of poultry. 

The joint at the end of the leg breaks off easily. 



45-60 
20-30 



15-20 

50-60 

20-30 

18 



20 
10-12 



6-8 



TIME TABLES FOR COOKING 



237 



III. FISH 

Baking. hours mix. 

Thick fish, per pound 10-15 

Thin fish, per pound 8-10 

Halibut, 6 lbs 1 

Boiling. 

Thick fish, e. g., halibut, salmon, per lb. 15 

Thick fish, e. g., bluefish, bass, per lb. . S-10 

Thin fish, c. g., flounder, per pound . . 6-8 

Clams (to steam) 20 

Lobster, for salad 25-30 

Lobster, to be re-cooked 15-20 

Frying. 

Fillets or steaks 4-7 

Smelts, trout, and other small fish . . 3-5 

Test for the cooking of fish. 

When the flesh can readily be separated from the bone, the fish is 
cooked. 



Time Table for Cooking Vegetables 

Boiling. 

Artichokes 

Asparagus 

Beans, shelled 

Beans, string ^i--Yz 

Boiling. 

Beets, young . 

Beets, old 1-3 

Brussels sprouts 

Cabbage, young 

Cabbage, old 1 

Carrots 

Cauliflower 

Celery, stewed 

Corn, green 

Dandelion greens 

Macaroni 



30-45 
15-30 
30-60 



45 

20-25 
30-45 

30-60 
30-45 
20-45 
3-25 
45-60 
20-40 



238 



PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 



Boiling — confinued. 

Onions 

Okra 

Oyster plant .... 

Parsnips 

Peas 

Potatoes 

Potatoes, sweet . . 

Rice 

Spinach 

Squash, summer . . 
Squash, winter . . . 
Tomatoes, stewed 
Turnips, white . . . 
Turnips, yellow . . 

Baking. 

Beans 

Beets 

Onions 

Potatoes 

Squash 

Sweet potatoes . . . 
Tomatoes 

Frying. 

Egg plant ..... 
Potatoes, French fried 
Potatoes, sliced . . 
Summer squash . . 



HOURS 



8-10 



30-60 

45-60 

30-45 

12-45 

30 

45 

20-30 

20-40 

20 

30 

15-25 

30-45 

30-60 



45 
45 

10-20 



5-8 

10-15 

4-8 

4 



Time Table for Cooking Flour Mixtures, etc. 

I. BREAD, MUFFINS, AND CAKES 
Baking. 

Biscuits, soda or baking powder . . . 12-20 

Bread, 1 lb. loaf, 1 cup wetting .... 40-45 

Bread rolls ............ 15-25 

Bread sticks 10-15 

Cake, angel or sponge 45-60 

Cake, layer 12-20 

Cake, loaf 40-60 

Cake, fruit l/4~2 

Cake, plain cup 35-45 



TIME TABLES FOR COOKING 



239 



Baking — coviinnM. hours min. 

Cake, pound 1M~13^ 

Cake, wedding 3 h. or steam 2h. and 

bake 1>^ h. 

Cookies 6-12 

Corn cake, thick 25-30 

Corn cake, thin 15-20 

Gingerbread 20-30 

Graham gems 25-30 

Muffins, baking powder 20-25 

Muffins, yeast 30 

n. PASTRY, PUDDINGS, ETC. 

Batter puddings 35-40 

Bread puddings M~l 

Cheese straws 8-10 

Custard pudding 30-45 

Custard, cup 20-25 

Indian pudding 2-3 

Patties 20-25 

Pies 30-50 

Plum pudding 2-3 

Rice pudding, 1 

Rice pudding, creamy 2-3 

Souffles 30-40 

Tapioca pudding 1 

Tarts 15-20 

Steaming. 

Brown bread 3 

Puddings 1-3 

Boiling. 

Plum pudding 6-8 



APPENDIX C 

THE PRINCIPLES OF THE PREPARATION OF FOOD 
Which have been Illustrated in the Preceding Chapters 

Acid coagulates albumin. 

Acid precipitates casein. 

Acid softens connective tissue (collagen). 

Acid softens cellulose. 

Acid softens gelatine jellies. 

Acid, water, and heat change starch to sugar. 

Acid, water, and heat invert cane sugar. 

Acid in strong solution is an antiseptic. 

Heat coagulates albumin. 

Heat softens gelatine. 

Heat develops the flavor of the sapid extractives of food in pro- 
portion to the degree of temperature employed. 

Heat converts starch to dextrine. 

Heat caramehzes sugar. 

Heat (dry) dehydrates foods, causing loss in weight. 

Heat (moist) bursts starch cells. 

Heat sterihzes foods by destroying germs. 

Heat and water invert cane sugar. 

Heat and water applied for a sufficient length of time convert 
starch into sugar. 

Heat in excess will change the characteristic properties of gela- 
tine. 

Heat in excess will change the characteristic properties of pectin. 

Heat destroys the active principle in pineapple juice. 

Heat is readily conducted by water and steam. 

Heat is not well conducted by dry air. 

Heat is not well conducted by cooked food of an albuminous 
nature. 

Heat is not well conducted by collaginous connective tissue. 

Heat is not well conducted by dextrinized foods. 

240 



PRINCIPLES OF PREPARATION OF FOOD 241 

Heat volatilizes lemon juice. 

Heat in excess causes a chemical change in citric acid, resulting 

in a disagreeable flavor. 
Initial high temperature develops a more pronounced flavor 

than the same temperature gradually attained. 

Salt toughens cellulose. 

Salt in moderately strong solution lessens the solvent action of 

water. 
Salt in weak solution dissolves globuhn. 
Salt yellows vegetable connective tissue. 
Salt is an antiseptic. 
Salt in solution raises the boihng point of water. 

Water dissolves one-third its volume of salt. 

Water (cold) dissolves one-third its volume of sugar. 

Water, 212° F., dissolves three times its volume of sugar. 

Water dissolves albumin. 

Water (cold) is absorbed by gelatine. 

Water (hot) dissolves previously hydrated gelatine. 

Water dissolves the sapid extractives of foods. 

Sugar toughens cellulose. 

Sugar is a dehydrating agent. 

Sugar in large quantity is an antiseptic. 

Sugar in solution raises the boihng point of water. 

Baking soda neutrahzes acids. 

Baking soda increases the solvent action of water. 

Baking soda is decomposed by heat, ^vith evolution of carbon 

dioxide. . 

Saltpeter, used in pickhng or on corning meats, has an oxidizmg 

action, and will preserve the red color. 

Air can be beaten into albumin. 
Air can be beaten into gelatine. 
Air can be beaten into cream. 
Air or gas can be held by gluten. 

Spice is an antiseptic. 

Retention of potassium salt makes potato less mealy when 

boiled or steamed. . . 

A starchy thickening, added to milk, will prevent its bemg 

curdled by acid. 



242 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 

A starchy thickening will keep a custard from wheying 
Cooking m an open kettle wall preserve the brightness of the 

color of vegetables. 
The yolk of egg coagulates at a lower temperature than the white 
Hard-cooked yolk of egg is soluble in water. 
Bromelin, the ferment in fresh pineapple juice, dissolves proteids 



I 



INDEX 



INDEX 



Acid, its effect on cellulose, 

20 
Albumin, 48, 49 
Almond butter, 124 
Almond rock, 184 
Apple compote, 24 
Apple jelly, 27 
Apple pie, 205 
Apple tea, 197 
Apples, 

Baked 4 

Composition of, 220, 221 

Jelly from, 27 

Steamed, 4 

Bacon, 

Broiled, 125 

Composition of, 226 
Baking-powder biscuit, 155 
Baking powders, study of, 160 
Banana fritters, 123 
Bananas, 

Baked, 5 

Broiled, 73 

Composition of, 221 

Steamed, 5 
Barding, 82 
Batters, 140, 209 
Bavarian cream, 51 
Beef, 

A la mode, 83 

Braised, 81 

Composition of, 226 

Corned, 93 

Jelly, 44 
Beets, 

Baked, 3 

Composition of, 233 

Steamed, 3 



Beverages, 191 

Apple tea, 197 

Cocoa, 195 

Coffee, 192 

Fruit punch, 197 

Spanish chocolate, 196 

Tea, 193, 194 

Tea punch, 197 
Biscuit. See Flour mixtures 
Boiled puddings, 211 
Bouillon, 96 
Braised beef, 81 
Bread. See Flour mixtures 
Bread and butter pudding, 107 
Bread crumbs, 209 
Brown bread, Boston, 163, 217 
Brown stew, 92 
Brunswick stew, 93 
Butter, 103 

Ahnond, 124 

Composition of, 219 

Drawn, 56 

Cabbage, 

Boiled, 15 

Composition of, 229 

Escalloped with cheese, 16 

EscaUoped with tomato, 16 
Caffeine, 191 
Cakes, 201 

See also Flour mixtures 
Calves' foot jelly, 43 
Candy. See Su^ar 
Cane sugar, 187, 188, 225 
Caper sauce, 90 
Carrots, 

Composition of, 233 

Creamed, 18 

Jelly from, 27 



246 



INDEX 



CeUulose, 7, 20, 24 
Cereals, 130, 210, 218 
Charts, 216 

Composition of foods, 

Bread, cake, and crackers, 

217 
Cereals and cereal prepara- 
tions, 218 
Dairy produce, 219 
Dried fruit, 220 
Fish, 222, 223, 224 
Flour, sugar, syrup, choco- 
late, etc., 225 
Fresh fruit, 221 
Fruit, 220, 221 
Meats, 226 
Nuts, 227 
Poultry, 228 
Vegetables, 229-233 
Visceral foods, 234 
Principles of preparation of 

food, 240 
Time tables for cooking. 
Fish, 237 

Flour mixtures, 238 
Meats, 235 
Poultry, 236 
Vegetables, 237 
Cheese, 11. See also Rabbits 
Composition of, 219 
Cottage, 103 
Souffle, 114 
Chicken jelly, 43 
Chocolate, 191, 196, 225 
Chocolate bread pudding, 108 
"Chou" paste, 165, 210 
Chowder, 58, 93 
Cocoa, 191, 195, 225 
Coffee, 191, 192 
Coffee cake, 174 
Coffee extract, 43 
Coffee jelly, 42 
Color, preservation of, 24 
Compote, apple, 24 
Consomm^, 96 
Cooked salad dressing, 120 
Cookies, nut, 158 
Corn, 
Boiled, 7 
Composition of, 232 



Corned beef. See Beef 
Cottage cheese, 103 
Cranberry pie, 207 
Cranberry sauce, 26 
Cream, 

Composition of, 219 

Whipped, 24 
Cream fiUing, 157 
Cream puffs, 163 
Cream salad dressing, 120 
Cream soups. See Milk soups 
Cream tomato soup, 105, 106 
Croustades, 17, 18 
Crullers, 156 
Crumbs, buttered, 9 
Crumpets, 173 
Curry 

of oysters, 65 

of tomato, 85 
Custard, 

Baked, 33 

Meringue for, 33 

Rennet, 102 

Soft, 32 

Dairy produce, composition 

of, 219 
Date cream filling, 157 
Daubing, 82 
Doughnuts, 174 
Doughs, 154, 209 
Drawn butter sauce, 56 
Dumplings, 92 

Egg lemonade, 31 

Egg toast, 107 

Eggs, 30. See also Custard and 
Omelet 
Baked, 3 

Composition of, 226 
Creamed on toast, 31 
"Hard-cooked, 30 
Molded, 34 
Soft-cooked, 3, 30 
Test for freshness, 30 

Election cake, 174 

Emergency biscuit, 154 

Enghsh muffins, 173 

English plum pudding, 210 



INDEX 



247 



Exercises, 14, 21, 28, 38, 51, 

58, 78, 88, 99, 112, 128, 138, 

167, 212 
Experiments, 10, 19, 48, 66, 75, 

97, 122, 126, 135, 149, 150, 

159, 187 

Fat, applying to meat, 82 

Fats, 115 

Fig marmalade, 12, 133 

FiUing, 

Date cream, 157 

For cream puffs, 165 
Fish, 53 

Baked, 54 

Boiled, 54 

Broiled, 55 

Composition of, 222-224 

Fried, 55 

Steamed, 54 

Time table for cooking, 237 
Flom* mixtures, 140, 154, 169 

Baking-powder biscuit, 155 

Boston brown bread, 163 

Coffee cake, 174 

Composition of, 217, 225 

Cream puffs, 163, 165 

Crullers, 156 

Crumpets, 173 

Date cream filling, 157 

Doughnuts, 174 

Election cake, 174 

Emergency biscuit, 154 

Enghsh muffins, 173 

French pancakes, 144 

Ginger snaps, 158 

Griddle cakes, 142-144 

Hard gingerbread, 158 

Muffins, 146 

Nut cookies, 158 

One-two-three-four cake, 201 

Parker House rolls, 176 

Pie crust, 156, 157 

Popovers, 145 

Quick cakes, 147 

Quick-process bread, 169 

Raisin bread, 174 

Shortcake, 156 

Soft molasses gingerbread, 163 

Steamed puddings, 147 



Flour mixtures — continued 

Time table for cooking, 238 

Vinegar cake, 163 

Waffles, 144, 174 
Fondants, 186 
French coffee, 193 
French di'essing, 115 
French pancakes, 144 
Fricassee, 93 
Fritadella, 100 
Fritters, 

Banana, 123 

Batter, 144, 147 
Fruit, composition of, 220, 221 
Fruit di-inks, 197 
Fruit jelly, 27 
Fruit punch, 197 
Fruit toasts, 107 
Frying, 

Cooked mixtures, 123 

Deep fat, 115, 121 

Uncooked mixtures, 123 
Fudge, vanilla, 185 

Gelatine, 42, 226 

Gelatine jellies, general rules for, 

44 
Ginger pears, 25 
Ginger snaps, 158 
Gingerbread, 

Hard, 158 

Soft molasses, 163 
Glaseed nuts, 184 
Glaze, 96 

Globulin of meat, 97 
Glucose, 187 
Golden buck, 110 
Griddle cakes, 142-144 

Haggis, 93 

Hamburg steak, 72 

Haricot, 93 

Heat, its effect on food, 1, 188, 

189 
Hollandaise sauce, 56 
Home economics, value of, xi- 

xiii 
Horseradish sauce, 73 

Irish stew, 93 



248 



INDEX 



Jellying principle, 24 
Jelly, 

Apple, 27 

Beef, 44 

Calves' foot, 43 

Chicken, 43 

Coffee, 42 

From turnips or carrots, 27 

Fruit, 27 

Lemon, 42 

Milk, 51 

Pineapple, 43 

Ribbon, 51 
Junket, 102 

Kolcannon, 93 
Kreatin, 97 

Lamb, 

Boiled, 89 

Composition of, 226 
Leavens, 140, 154 
Lemon jelly, 42 
Lemon pie, 208 
Lemon sauce, 124 
Lemon sponge, 134 

Macaroni, 

Boiled, 133 

Composition of, 218, 231 

With apple sauce, 134 

With cheese, 134 

With tomato, 134 
Maitre d'hotel butter, 73 
Marinade, 117, 121 
Marrow bones, deviled, 125 
Mayonnaise, 118 
Meat, 70, 79, 89, 226 
Meat baUs, 2 
Meat stews. See Stews 
Medium white sauce, 9 
Meringue, 

For custard, 33 

For pie, 158, 208 
Milk, 101, 219 
Milk jeUy, 51 
Milk puddings, 107 
Milk soups, 104 
Milk toast, 106 



Mississippi steamboat potatoes, 
85 

Mocha icing, 114 

Mock bisque soup, 105, 106 

Mock mince pie, 208 

Mock mayonnaise, 119, 120 

Molasses, 

Composition of, 225 
Soft gingerbread, 163 
Velvet candy, 185 

Muffins, 146 

Mushrooms with tomatoes, 84 

Nut cookies, 158 
Nuts, 184, 201, 226 
Nutted cream, 128 

Olive rabbit, 110 
Omelet, 

Foamy, 34 

Varieties of, 35 
One-two-three-four cake, 201 
Onions, 

Buttered, 16 

Composition of, 233 
Orange sponge, 134 
Oyster rabbit, 110 
Oysters, 62 

A la poulette, 65 

Broiled, 2 

Composition of, 223 

Creamed, 65 

Curry of, 65 

Rabbit, 110 

Soup, 63 

Steamed, 2 

Stew, 63 

Supreme of, 66 

With cheese, 65 

Pancakes, 142-144 
Parker House rolls, 176 
Parsley, chopped, 73 
Parsnips, 

Boiled, 19 

Composition of, 233 
Peaches, 

Baked, 4 

Steamed, 4 
Peanut brittle, 183 



INDEX 



249 



Pears, 

Composition of, 221 

Ginger, 25 
Peas, 

Composition of, 230 

Green, 26 
Peppers (green) farci, 86 
Pie crust, 156, 157, 207 
Pies, 205 

Apple, 205 

Cranberry, 207 

General rules, 205 

Lemon, 208 

Pastry shells, 207 

Raisin, 208 

Strawberry, 206 
Pilaff, Turkish, 138 
Pineapple jelly, 43 
Pineapple juice, action of, 49 
Popovers, 145 
Piquante sauce, 56 
Pot roast, 82 
Potato, study of, 7 
Potatoes, 

Baked, 3, 10 

Boiled, 3, 8 

Composition of, 231 

Mashed, 8 

Mississippi steamboat, 85 

With cheese, 9, 10 
Poultry, 

Composition of, 228 

Time table for cooking, 236 
Protein, tests for, 48 
Puddings, 209 

Bavarian cream, 51 

Boiled, 211 

Bread and butter, 107 

Chocolate bread, 108 

Enghsh plum, 210 

Foundations for, 209 

Lemon sponge, 134 

Nutted cream, 128 

Orange sponge, 134 

Steamed, 147 

Suet, 129 

Questions, 6, 13, 21, 28, 37, 50, 
57, 68, 77, 87, 98, 111, 127, 



136, 152, 166, 180, 190, 199, 

212 
Quick cakes, 147 
Quick-process bread, 169 

Rabbits, 

Golden buck, 110 

OUve, 110 

Oyster, 110 

Scotch woodcock, 110 

Welsh, 109 

Yorkshire, 1 10 
Ragout, 93 
Raisin bread, 174 
Raisin pie, 208 
References, bibhographical, 6, 
14, 22, 29, 41, 52, 60, 69, 
78, 88, 100, 114, 129, 138, 
153, 167, 182, 190, 200 
Rennet custard, 102 
Ribbon jelly, 51 
Rice, 11 

Baked, 12 

Boiled, 11 

Composition of, 218, 231 

Steamed, 12 

With fig marmalade, 12 
Roast, 

Pot, 82 

Standing rib, 79 
Rolled skirt steak, 74 

Salad dressings, 121 

Cream, 120 

French, 115 

Marinade, 117, 121 

Mayonnaise, 118, 

Mock mayonnaise, 119, 120 

Sour cream, 120 
Salads, preparing, 120 
Salisbury steak, 73 
Salmi, 93 

Salt, its eflfect on cellulose, 7 
Sauce, 

Caper, 90 

Cranberry, 26 

Drawn butter, 56 

HoUandaise, 56 

Horseradish, 73 



250 



INDEX 



Sauce — continued 

Lemon, 124 

Maitre d'hotel, 73 

Medium white, 9 

Piquante, 56 

Tomato, 16 
Scotch woodcock, 110 
Scrapple, 129 
Seasoning, 70 
Shortcake, 156 
Slaw, 

Cold, 86 

Hot, 85 
Soup stock, 94-96 
Soups, 

Bouillon, 96 

Clear, 96 

Consomme, 96 

Court bouillon, 96 

Cream tomato, 105, 106 

Milk, 104 

Mock bisque, 105, 106 

Stock, 94-96 
Sour cream salad dressing, 120 
Spanish chocolate, 196 
Spinach, 

Composition of, 229 

In croustades, 17 
Sponge puddings. See Puddings 
Squash, 

Boiled, 19 

Composition of, 232 
Standing Rib Roast, 79 
Starch, chemical change in, 135 
Steak, 70 

Accompaniments to, 73 

Hamburg, 72 

Rolled skirt, 74 

Sahsbury, 73 

Stuffing for skirt, 74 

Tender, 71 

Tough, 72 
Steamed puddings, 147 
Stews, 

Brown, 92 

Irish, 93 

Meat, 89, 90, 92, 93 

Oyster, 63 
Strawberry pie, 206 



Strawberry whip, 42 
Stuffing for skirt steak, 74 
Suet pudding, 129 
Sugar, 183 

Almond rock, 184 

Composition of, 225 

Fondants, 186 

Glaceed nuts, 184 

Peanut brittle, 183 

Vanilla fudge, 185 

Velvet molasses candy, 185 
Supreme of oysters, 66 
Syrup, composition of, 225 

Tannin, 191, 198 

Tea, 191, 193 

Tea punch, 197 

Time tables for cooking, 235 

Toast, 

Egg, 107 

Fruit, 107 

Milk, 106 

Tomato, 107 
Tomato sauce, 16 
Tomato toast, 107 
Tomatoes, 16 

Baked, 4 

Composition of, 232 

Curried, 85 

Deviled, 84 

Steamed, 4 

Toast, 107 

With mushrooms, 84 
Topics for study, 5, 13, 20, 27, 
37, 50, 56, 68, 76, 87, 98, 
111, 127, 136, 148, 151, 160, 
166, 179, 183, 189, 199 
Turkish pilaff, 138 
Turnips, 

Composition of, 233 

Jelly from, 27 

Mashed, 17 

Vanilla fudge, 185 
Veal, 

Bu-ds, 83 

Composition of, 226 
Vegetables, 

Composition of, 229-233 

Time table for cooking, 237 



INDEX 



251 



Vegetables, green, study of, 15 
Velvet molasses candy, 185 
Vinegar cake, 163 
Visceral foods, composition of, 
234 

Waffles, 144, 174 

Water, effect of salts on, 19 



Welsh rabbit, 109 
Whey, 104, 219 
Whipped cream, 24 

Yeast aids, study of, 172, 

178 
Yorkshire rabbit, 110 



